MEMCAL 


COLLEGE  OF   PHARMACY 


•:.!irorr,!a  College  of  Pharmao* 


STUDIES  IN 
PLANT  AND  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

AND 

LITERARY  PAPERS 

BY 

HELEN   ABBOTT  JVIICHAEL 

(HELEN  C.  DE  S.  ABBOTT) 


WITH 
BIOGRAPHICAL    SKETCH 


California  Cottage  of  Pharmacy 


itfcersiDe  JDrrss 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS 
1907 


COPYRIGHT   1907   BY   FRANCIS   R.   ABBOTT 
ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 


CONTENTS 


HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL  —  BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  .    .     -3 

STUDIES  IN  PLANT  AND  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

INTRODUCTION in 

SOME  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  CONDIMENTS  114 
PRELIMINARY  ANALYSIS  or  THE  BARK  OF  FOUQUIERIA  SPLENDENS  117 

A  CHEMICAL  STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA 126 

CERTAIN  CHEMICAL  CONSTITUENTS  OF  PLANTS  CONSIDERED  IN 

RELATION  TO  THEIR  MORPHOLOGY  AND  EVOLUTION  .  .  .  .168 
ON  H^MATOXYLIN  IN  THE  BARK  OF  SARACA  INDICA  .  .  .  .171 

PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED  SCIENCE.  175 

PLANT  CHEMISTRY,  AS  ILLUSTRATED  IN  THE  PRODUCTION  OF 

SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM 210 

THE  CHEMICAL  BASIS  OF  PLANT  FORMS 232 

COMPARATIVE  CHEMISTRY  OF  HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  .  .257 
ON  THE  OCCURRENCE  OF  SOLID  HYDROCARBONS  IN  PLANTS  .  .  280 
UBER  EINE  NEUE  BILDUNGSWEISE  VON  AROMATISCHEN  NITRILEN  286 
ZUR  KENNTNISS  DER  MANDELSAURE  UND  IHRES  NITRILS  .  .  .292 
ZUR  KENNTNISS  DER  ADDITION  VON  BROM  UND  CHLOR  zu  FESTER 

CROTONSAURE  300 

ZUR  CONSTITUTION  DES  PHLORETINS .313 

A  REVIEW  OF  RECENT  SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  THE  CLASS  OF 

CARBOHYDRATES 318 

LITERARY  PAPERS 

SCIENCE  AND  PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART 349 

THE  DRAMA  IN  RELATION  TO  TRUTH 364 

WOMAN  AND  FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN 370 

THE    CONCEPTION    OF    TRUTH    AMONG    THE    GREEKS    AND    IN 
BROWNING 393 

INDEX  .  4iQ 


409 


HELEN   ABBOTT   MICHAEL 
BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH 

THE  arc  of  Helen  Abbott  Michael's  life  swept  through  several 
fields  of  human  activity,  in  each  of  which  she  showed  remark- 
able ability  and  achieved  unusual  success.  Versatility,  how- 
ever brilliant,  is  often  a  dangerous  gift,  leading  to  a  scattering 
of  energies  and  to  practical  failure;  but  she  had  great  power 
of  concentration,  and  realized,  as  few  have,  the  necessity  of 
systematic  application.  She  was  not  led  by  her  manifold  tal- 
ents into  desultory  or  spasmodic  expenditure  of  energy,  but 
having  deliberately  chosen  a  path  which  seemed  to  offer  her 
opportunities  of  usefulness,  she  was  not  content  to  abandon 
it  until  she  had  followed  it  to  a  profitable  ending.  Nor,  even 
after  she  had  proceeded  to  another  department  of  work,  did 
she  lose  her  interest  in  that  from  which  she  had  passed.  She 
"assimilated  all  that  was  best  in  every  branch  of  knowledge 
that  she  took  up,  and  her  symmetrically  developed  character 
proved  that  her  attainments  were  not  made  for  selfish  ends. 
Her  altruism  was  ever  apparent. 

Certain  marked  qualities  of  hers  deserve  commemoration. 
Lovely  in  person,  graceful  in  figure,  she  preserved  a  charming 
simplicity  and  modesty.  She  was  wholly  lacking  in  self-con- 
sciousness. Her  association  with  men  of  science  and  her  own 
keen  zest  in  subjects  of  scientific  import  gave  to  her  conversa- 
tion a  note  of  deep  seriousness ;  but  she  had  a  natural  play  of 
wit,  and  she  was  quick  to  see  the  ludicrous  aspect  of  any  ques- 
tion. Broad  and  liberal  in  her  ideas,  she  displayed  a  genuine 
sympathy  with  all  phases  of  thought,  scientific  and  religious. 
She  had  made  a  special  study  of  the  plastic  arts,  and  her  diaries 
are  full  of  brief  and  always  pointed  criticisms  and  appreciations 
of  the  paintings,  sculptures,  and  beautiful  buildings  that  she 
studied,  even  while  making  her  specialty  of  chemical  or  medical 
investigations. 


4  HELEN  ABBOTT   MICHAEL 

Through  her  zeal  for  study  she  met  with  an  accident  which 
affected  her  health  for  many  years,  but  this  unfortunate  deple- 
tion of  physical  power  never  stood  in  the  way  of  her  ambition; 
she  fought  against  suffering  with  Spartan  heroism. 

Another  of  the  great  lessons  of  her  life  emphasizes  the  value 
of  thoroughness.  She  was  not  satisfied  to  be  a  smatterer.  After 
she  had  won  an  enviable  reputation  as  an  original  investigator 
in  plant  chemistry,  she  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Europe,  with  a 
view  of  perfecting  herself  in  the  use  of  methods  and  appliances ; 
and  she  records  with  sweet  humility  her  consciousness  of  what 
she  lacks  in  training,  —  with  humility,  but  with  no  sense  of  dis- 
couragement, rather  with  quickened  zeal  and  enthusiasm. 
Even  at  that  time  it  could  have  been  said  of  her,  as  was  said 
later  of  what  she  had  already  accomplished,  "Her  studies  in 
tracing  the  relations  existing  between  chemical  composition  and 
botanical  species  are  of  the  highest  interest  from  the  view-point 
of  research." 

Women  have  ever  been  leaders  in  great  popular  movements. 
History  is  studded  with  the  names  of  queens.  Mythology,  which 
is  in  a  sense  crystallized  history,  gives  equal  honor  to  goddesses 
and  gods.  It  seemed  to  the  Greeks  perfectly  in  accordance  with 
the  order  of  Nature  that  a  whole  tribe  of  women  should  have 
had  a  comity  and  state  by  themselves,  with  Hippolita  their  mis- 
tress. Sappho  held  rank  with  the  greatest  poets  of  antiquity. 
Yet  in  modern  days,  when  the  tendency  of  the  Church,  based 
on  a  chance  remark  or  possibly  a  set  principle  of  Saint  Paul, 
has  been  to  condemn  women  to  silence  and  to  subordination, 
the  occasional  woman  who  has  had  the  genius  and  the  courage 
to  break  a  path  for  her  sex  into  the  more  active  life  of  the  world, 
has  compelled  recognition. 

Such  a  woman  was  Helen  Abbott  Michael.  She  did  in  chem- 
istry what  Maria  Mitchell  did  in  astronomy,  and  others  before 
and  since  have  done  in  other  branches.  It  seems  almost  in- 
credible that  within  so  short  a  time  she  accomplished  so  much. 
Woman  has  in  the  last  decade  made  such  tremendous  strides 
in  all  professions  that  it  sounds  strange  to  state  that  she  was 
a  pioneer.  Only  twenty  years  ago  she  made  her  first  investi- 
gations, and  it  is  perfectly  true  that,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  H.  W. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  5 

Wiley  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  her 
"papers  on  plant  analysis  were  not  only  valuable  when  they 
were  written,  but  will  continue  to  be  so  for  an  indefinite  time." 

She  had  something  worth  saying  in  regard  to  art  and  litera- 
ture as  well  as  science.  Toward  the  end  of  her  life  she  found 
herself  drawn  to  express  her  deeper  feelings  in  verse,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  that  if  she  had  been  spared  she  would  have  con- 
tributed valuable  thoughts  in  this  beautiful  medium.  Her 
numerous  friends  and  all  who  are  interested  in  the  work  ac- 
complished by  so  daring  and  fertile  a  mind,  all  who  admire  the 
splendid  progress  that  women  have  made  of  recent  years  in 
emancipating  themselves  from  the  shackles  of  conservatism, 
all  who  are  devoted  to  science,  whether  in  its  stricter  analyses 
or  in  its  popular  presentations  of  great  facts,  will  be  glad  to 
possess  in  valid  and  tangible  form  the  outcome  of  Dr.  Michael's 
scientific  and  literary  labors.  They  are  a  veritable  contribution 
to  the  growing  collection  of  books  that  glorify  the  age. 

It  is  a  privilege  to  be  allowed  to  introduce  the  volume  with  a 
brief  sketch  of  its  author's  career,  and  to  add  a  few  words  of 
appreciation  of  her  lovely  nature,  her  admirable  character,  her 
astonishing  ability,  and  her  epoch-making  work,  as  well  as  to 
express  the  universal  regret  that  her  career  was  so  prematurely 
cut  off,  when  she  seemed  to  be  entering  upon  a  new  phase  that 
promised  to  be  of  great  benefit  to  her  fellow-men.  She  was  a 
rare  and  radiant  spirit,  no  less  womanly  that  she  chose  to  vie 
with  men  in  an  active  and  laborious  occupation. 

Helen  Cecilia  De  Silver  Abbott,  youngest  child  of  James 
Abbott  and  Caroline  Montelius,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
December  23,  1857.  After  a  careful  home  education  under 
governesses  and  private  teachers,  who  without  exception  were 
delighted  with  her  affectionate  apd  studious  disposition  and 
her  extraordinary  quickness  of  mind,  she  was  inclined  to  make 
a  specialty  of  music,  a  genius  for  which  she  early  manifested. 

She  had  excellent  training.  Among  her  instructors  was  Miss 
Mary  F.  Howell,  a  talented  pianist,  a  musician  of  the  highest 
ability,  and  a  remarkable  personality.  Her  father's  house  be- 
came the  centre  of  a  musical  circle,  and  solo  and  ensemble  play- 
ing used  to  delight  such  audiences  as  were  favored  with  its 


6  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

entree.  In  her  renderings  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters, 
she  was  notable  for  her  union  of  strength  and  delicacy  of 
touch  with  sympathetic  appreciation.  She  read  at  sight  with 
extraordinary  fluency  and  correctness.  She  speedily  secured  a 
reputation  as  being  one  of  the  ablest  amateur  pianists  of  her 
native  city. 

This  reputation  she  carried  abroad  with  her  in  1878,  and 
at  the  concert  given  at  Ventnor  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  aid  of 
the  "  Distress  Fund,"  •  —  after  the  training-ship  Eurydice,  on  its 
way  home  from  Bermuda,  foundered  off  Dunnose  Headland 
with  a  loss  of  three  hundred  lives,  —  she  played  three  selections, 
and  was  characterized  by  a  local  newspaper  as  "a  performer 
of  great  finish  and  artistic  appreciation  of  her  subject."  An- 
other newspaper  said  her  performance  "was  marvelously 
clever  and  testified  to  a  most  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
pianoforte." 

She  spent  that  winter  in  Paris,  and  how  well  she  improved 
her  opportunities  and  what  an  impression  she  made  are  well 
shown  by  a  recent  letter  from  M.  Alphonse  Duvernoy  of  the 
Conservatoire.  He  says :  — 

"  She  had  a  superior  mind  open  to  everything.  Her  eagerness 
for  instruction  recognized  no  obstacles,  and  under  a  frail  exterior 
she  concealed  an  energy  and  will  power  of  which  many  men 
might  have  been  envious.  In  a  word,  by  her  nature  she  was 
one  of  the  elect,  and  I  was  happy  to  appreciate  her  at  her  real 
value.  ...  She  worked  under  my  direction  from  July,  1878, 
until  the  end  of  April,  1879.  Remarkably  gifted  for  music,  she 
made  very  rapid  progress,  and  her  execution  was  sufficiently 
advanced  to  allow  her  to  grapple  with  the  works  of  the  great 
masters,  for  whom  she  felt  a  passionate  admiration.  In  May, 
1879,  she  returned  to  Amerka,  and  was  back  in  Paris  in  1880. 
At  this  time  she  devoted  herself  to  chamber  music,  into  which 
she  was  initiated  by  two  eminent  artists  —  MM.  Armingaud 
the  violinist  and  Jacquard  the  violoncellist.  In  1881  she  ceased 
to  work  with  these  gentlemen,  whom  she  entirely  won  by  the 
quickness  of  her  intelligence  and  by  her  musical  feeling." 

Madame  Arabella  Goddard,  the  eminent  pianist,  who  made 
her  last  public  appearances  in  connection  with  Sir  Arthur 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  7 

Sullivan's  concerts  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878,  had  advised 
her  to  take  up  music  professionally  and  had  offered  to  be  spon- 
sor for  her  success  on  the  stage;  but  even  at  this  time  wider 
and  more  satisfying  vistas  were  opening  before  her  eager  ambi- 
tion. She  was  beginning  to  think  for  herself  on  many  matters 
of  philosophy  and  religion.  Perhaps  the  turning-point  of  her 
career  was  reached  when,  in  company  with  a  pleasant  party  of 
relatives  and  friends,  she  visited  Spain.  A  glimpse  of  her  in  this 
enjoyable  tour  is  afforded  by  the  late  George  Parsons  Lathrop's 
"  Spanish  Vistas, "  in  which  she  is  frequently  mentioned  under 
the  appellation  of  "The  Novice." 

She  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  1881,  and  with  characteristic 
thoroughness  attended  a  course  of  musical  composition  with 
Professor  Hugh  A.  Clarke  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Her  interest  in  music  never  waned;  many  years  afterwards 
she  took  a  course  of  lessons  in  singing,  and  entered  into  the 
subject  with  much  enthusiasm.  She  was  also  in  the  habit  of 
going  with  a  Boston  friend  to  the  Burrage  Rooms,  where 
through  the  generous  provisions  of  a  music-loving  young  lady 
who  died  at  an  early  age,  opportunity  is  provided  for  practice 
with  two  or  more  pianos  and  the  use  of  a  valuable  library  of 
pianoforte  compositions. 

An  intimate  friend  of  hers,  writing  of  her  abandonment  of 
music  as  a  specialty,  comments  on  the  power  that  she  possessed 
"of  taking  up  almost  any  study  and  carrying  it  forward  to 
completion;  as  soon  as  this  point  was  reached,"  says  this 
friend,  "her  agile  mind  turned  to  another  theme,  with  the  same 
result." 

The  impulse  that  led  her  to  put  the  practice  of  music  behind 
her,  and  to  enter  into  a  far  more  laborious  occupation,  is  clearly 
explained  in  a  fragment  of  autobiography  which  she  began  in 
February,  1900.  This  writing  also  throws  some  light  upon  her 
mental  development,  and  is  so  interesting  one  could  wish  that 
it  had  been  more  inclusive,  that  she  had  deemed  it  worth  while 
to  relate  her  experiences  during  the  time  when  she  was  devoting 
herself  to  music  and  meeting  many  of  the  eminent  virtuosi  with 
whom  she  was  privileged  to  associate,  and  also  that  she  had 
brought  it  down  to  the  attainment  of  her  medical  degree.  But 


8  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

even  as  a  fragment  it  is  worthy  of  insertion  in  this  place.  A  few 
verbal  changes,  never  in  any  way  affecting  the  sense,  have  been 
made  here  and  there.  Also  a  few  paragraphs  have  been  omit- 
ted. She  entitled  it:  — 

A   BRIEF   OUTLINE    OF   TEN    YEARS    OF    SCIENTIFIC 

LIFE 

On  my  return  from  Europe,  early  in  the  eighties,  after  six  years 
spent  in  the  study  of  music  there  and  in  America,  I  began  my 
education.  My  first  introduction  to  scientific  thought  was 
Helmholtz's  great  work  on  Optics.  This  book  I  had  purchased 
at  one  of  the  second-hand  bookstalls  on  the  quais  along  the 
Seine  in  one  of  the  old  quarters  of  Paris.  This  book  was  trea- 
sured and  brought  with  me  back  to  America.  I  may  note  that 
when  I  was  only  eight  years  old,  I  found  a  small  book  of  hu- 
man anatomy  belonging  to  my  brother  at  home. 

My  governess,  a  highly  instructed,  conscientious  Catholic, 
saw  me  reading  this  book  and  studying  the  plates  representing 
the  human  skeleton.  She  remonstrated  with  me  for  my  inter- 
est in  the  subject,  and  said  that  Catholic  teaching  did  not  favor 
such  studies  for  youth.  There  never  had  been,  as  far  as  I  know, 
any  one  in  my  family  who  had  been  devoted  to  a  scientific  life, 
although  my  father's  father  had  shown  an  interest  in  botany, 
and  at  one  time  followed  in  New  Jersey  the  calling  of  phar- 
macist. 

My  father  was  of  an  active,  inquiring  mind,  but  he  had 
never  devoted  himself  to  any  special  scientific  studies.  I  had 
been  told  that  some  generations  back  ancestors  on  my  mother's 
side  had  been  scholars,  graduates  from  foreign  universities, 
but  I  always  inferred  that  their  interest  ran  more  in  literary 
lines. 

A  first  cousin  on  my  father's  side  is  known  as  a  veritable 
Nimrod  among  the  scientific  collectors  of  the  day.  This  is 
Dr.  William  Louis  Abbott,  whose  marvelous  collections  of 
animals,  skins,  birds,  plants,  and  ethnological  specimens 
fill  or  contribute  to  fill  some  of  the  leading  museums  of  our 
country.  I  think  this  is  all  that  I  need  to  say  about  the  scien- 
tific tendencies  in  the  family. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  9 

I  am  especially  indebted  to  Dr.  William  Thomson  of 
Philadelphia  for  being  the  first  to  explain  to  me  the  laws  of 
physics,  especially  of  light  and  refraction;  and  in  the  many 
hours  of  his  brilliant  conversations  I  learned  to  appreciate 
the  meaning  of  a  scientific  life  and  the  possibility  that  would 
open  up  to  humanity  through  the  scientific  spirit.  From 
Optics  my  interest  ran  to  Zoology  and  to  the  dissection  of 
animals  for  closer  anatomical  study  than  the  plates  or  speci- 
mens offered.  The  horror  of  my  friends  and  acquaintances 
at  this  sudden  change  in  my  tastes  from  Art  may  be  readily 
imagined,  but  I  persevered,  and  in  June  of  1882  Mrs.  Ma- 
tilda M.  Cohen,  the  mother  of  one  of  my  dearest  friends, 
accompanied  me  to  the  Woman's  Medical  College  of  Phila- 
delphia and  introduced  me  to  the  Dean.  I  had  determined 
to  study  medicine  in  order  to  get-  a  broader  education.  This 
channel  seemed  the  easiest  way,  as  I  had  not  had  the  special 
preliminary  training  for  entrance  to  one  or  two  of  the  colleges 
then  open  to  women,  and  I  did  not  care  to  spend  the  time 
to  secure  this  entrance  knowledge.  I  looked  to  the  Woman's 
Medical  College  as  the  open  sesame  to  the  undiscovered 
lands. 

Upon  my  introduction  to  the  college  I  was  brought  into 
association  with  Dr.  Emelie  B.  DuBois,  who  was  the  demon- 
strator of  anatomy.  I  went  to  her  house  several  times  each 
week  during  the  summer  months,  studying  with  her  and 
reciting  to  her  Gray's  Anatomy.  This  study  had  always  a 
most  vivid  interest  for  me,  and  I  awaited  with  impatience  the 
opening  of  the  dissecting-room  in  the  autumn.  I  felt  that  in 
the  demonstrating  and  lecturing  on  anatomy  I  should  find 
my  main  interest  for  life,  but  I  was  turned  aside  from  this  in- 
tention, as  I  shall  show  later  on. 

During  the  first  year  at  college  I  devoted  myself  mainly 
to  becoming  acquainted  with  the  requirements  in  anatomy, 
chemistry,  physiology,  materia  medica,  and  with  practical 
anatomy  by  constant  dissections.  The  cadaver  had  no  terrors 
for  me,  and  the  marvelous  construction  of  the  human  frame 
was  an  endless  source  of  interest.  There  were  a  number  of 
women  then  studying  at  the  college  who  have  since  become 


io       HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

eminent  in  their  profession.  I  may  mention  Dr.  Grace  Wolcott 
and  Dr.  Lena  Ingraham. 

I  formed  a  warm  friendship  at  that  time  with  a  student 
who  entered  the  college  with  myself.  She  was  Eda  Wilhelmi  of 
New  Philadelphia,  Ohio.  She  later  married  Dr.  McLane,  and 
took  her  degree  in  Cleveland,  Ohio.  She  practiced  medicine 
in  New  Philadelphia  with  her  husband,  but  subsequently  gave 
up  medicine  for  literature,  for  which  she  had  always  a  strong 
bent. 

We  were  inseparable  companions  and  pursued  our  studies 
together.  The  lectures  which  troubled  us  the  most  to  under- 
stand were  those  given  by  Dr.  Frances  Emily  White  on  Physi- 
ology. She  followed  the  plan  to  introduce  her  class  to  a  general 
review  of  Biology  and  Morphology  based  on  the  principles  of 
evolution  and  a  great  deal  of  Herbert  Spencer.  To  one  who 
had  been  from  childhood  associated  with  thoughts  of  Art,  the 
languages,  and  literature,  shrouded  in  a  mantle  of  Catholic 
orthodoxy  and  mysticism,  these  lectures  were  puzzling  in  the 
extreme.  I  found  myself,  out  of  college  hours,  devouring  all  the 
works  I  could  find  on  subjects  to  elucidate  Dr.  White's  lectures. 

I  was  no  different  from  the  rest  of  the  beginners,  who  found 
these  lectures  difficult  to  grasp,  but  I  was  assured  that  on  reach- 
ing my  second  year  what  then  seemed  obscure  would  become 
very  plain.  I  owe  an  eternal  debt  of  gratitude  to  Dr.  White 
for  the  difficulties  she  had  me  encounter  during  these  first 
weeks  at  college.  Her  lectures  and  the  private  teaching  which 
I  had  from  her  later  were  most  stimulating  and  full  of  enlight- 
enment. I  passed  the  first  year's  examinations  in  chemistry, 
anatomy,  and  physiology  with  a  record  of  one  hundred  in 
each  branch. 

The  summer  following  my  first  year  at  the  Medical  Col- 
lege was  full  of  interest.  I  spent  a  great  portion  of  the  time  in 
chemistry,  geological  expeditions,  and  delving  more  deeply 
into  books  on  biological  subjects.  I  made  the  acquaintance,  at 
this  time,  of  Professor  Edward  D.  Cope.  The  versatility  of 
his  mind  attracted  me,  and  his  interest  in  all  general  subjects, 
such  as  music,  the  stage,  literature,  metaphysics,  and  philo- 
sophical speculation,  was  the  basis  of  a  congenial  friendship 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  u 

that  then  sprang  up  and  lasted  for  some  years.  His  mental 
alertness  and  responsiveness  to  all  the  humorous  sides  of  life 
made  him  a  delightful  companion. 

Of  French  and  Quaker  descent,  with  the  stolid  character- 
istics of  the  Quaker,  he  had  inherited  from  the  French  the  art 
of  living  a  happy  life.  Notwithstanding  Professor  Cope's 
mental  broadness  in  general,  he  did  not  believe  in  woman's 
equality  with  man.  This  rested  mainly  upon  the  fact  that  men 
do  the  policing  of  the  world,  the  hard  labor,  and  the  fighting. 
He  also  based  her  more  infantile  traits  upon  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain embryonic  characteristics  are  more  persistent  in  her  than 
in  man.  Still  he  did  grant  woman  some  reason  for  her  exist- 
ence, as  being  essential  to  man's  comfort  and  the  perpetuation 
of  the  race.  He  was  generous  to  woman  to  this  extent,  though 
he  would  deny  her  suffrage.  He  claimed  that  because  she  was 
man's  intellectual  and  physical  inferior,  she  needed  all  the  more 
the  higher  education  in  order  to  help  her  overcome  her  natural 
disabilities,  and  on  every  occasion,  in  public  lectures  or  in  pri- 
vate, he  was  woman's  warm  aider  in  forwarding  her  scientific 
work  or  opportunities.  Later  when  I  had  taken  up  the  study 
of  plant  chemistry,  Cope  helped  me  secure  specimens  of  unstud- 
ied plants  of  Mexico  and  Central  America;  he  urged  me  to 
pursue  research,  publish  my  investigations,  speak  before  so- 
cieties, attend  scientific  meetings,  collect  specimens  of  fishes, 
batrachia,  reptiles,  plants,  and  in  innumerable  ways  gave  me 
the  weight  of  his  experience,  encouragement,  and  hours  of  his 
time  to  acquaint  me  with  the  subjects  in  which  he  especially 
worked.  I  have  still  by  me  the  summary  of  his  instruction  in 
comparative  osteology.  I  consider  his  influence  in  my  life  of 
inexpressible  importance. 

It  was  mainly  owing  to  his  presentations  of  the  life  of  re- 
search that  I  afterwards  discontinued  my  medical  studies  and 
because  of  ill  health  decided  to  take  up  other  lines. 

Among  the  many  pleasant  scientific  excursions  we  enjoyed 
together  I  may  mention  one  in  1885.  After  the  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  at  Ann  Arbor,  which  I  attended  accom- 
panied by  my  father,  he,  Professor  Cope,  and  myself  started 
on  a  trip  across  the  continent  to  the  Yellowstone  National 


12        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

Park.  I  was  daily  enjoying  the  instructive  companionship 
of  Cope  during  the  month  of  our  stay  and,  the  company 
having  been  augmented  by  several  State  geologists,  we  formed 
parties  for  exploring  some  of  the  less  frequented  parts  of  the 
Park.  Some  of  us  pushed  on  from  the  Yellowstone  Canon 
across  the  Mt.  Washburn  trail  to  Yancey's,  the  petrified  for- 
est, and  amethyst  mountain.  That  expedition  was  full  of  ad- 
venture, including  an  encounter  with  a  bear,  a  snowstorm  on 
top  of  Mt.  Washburn,  one  of  the  ponies  sliding  three  hundred 
feet  down  the  trail,  and  a  runaway.  Our  journey  later  con- 
tinued across  the  plains  of  Idaho  to  Utah.  Cope  had  left  us 
for  a  few  days  to  visit  the  Green  River  region  for  specimens. 
He  brought  me  back  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  fossilized  fish- 
skeleton.  He  said  it  was  a  most  unusual  find. 

Our  experiences  in  Salt  Lake  City  were  somewhat  unique. 
We  met  quite  a  number  of  women  who  were  living  in  plural 
marriage.  Those  with  whom  we  spoke  seemed  generally  con- 
tent. On  the  Sunday  of  our  stay  we  attended  services  at  the 
temple.  They  included  reading  from  the  Old  Testament, 
the  singing  of  hymns,  preaching,  and  the  participation  in  a  sort 
of  a  communion,  bread  being  handed  around  among  the  con- 
gregation. My  father  had  preserved  a  most  reverent  attitude 
towards  the  services,  and  when  the  dish  of  bread  was  handed 
to  him,  he  took  a  piece,  bowed  his  head,  and  proceeded  to  eat 
it  as  all  the  good  Mormons  were  doing. 

Afterwards  when  we  taxed  my  father  with  the  query  if 
he  intended  to  become  one  of  the  elders,  he  did  not  vigorously 
affirm  that  he  would  not.  He  said,  "Well,  you  would  n't  have 
me  refuse  the  hospitality  they  had  extended  to  a  stranger." 

The  second  year  I  spent  at  the  Medical  College,  I  devoted 
extra  time  to  the  dissecting-room,  and  in  order  to  have  an  abun- 
dance of  material,  I  made  arrangements,  in  addition  to  my 
dissecting  at  the  Woman's  College,  for  the  evening  use  of  a 
dissecting-table  in  the  Dental  College  then  at  Twelfth  and 
Filbert  streets.  The  dissecting-room  was  very  thoroughly 
equipped,  and  from  eight  until  ten  o'clock  I  worked  there 
nightly.  This  institution  was  so  much  more  accessible  to  my 
home  that  I  was  saved  a  long,  lonely  walk  which  I  should 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  13 

otherwise  have  had  from  the  Woman's  College  had  I  attended 
the  night  classes. 

The  previous  spring,  Dr.  William  H.  Parrish  became  my 
private  preceptor  in  medical  studies,  and  three  evenings  during 
the  week  I  spent  at  his  office  in  recitation  and  in  explanations 
of  medical  subjects.  Dr.  Parrish  was  at  that  time  the  profes- 
sor of  anatomy  in  the  Woman's  Medical  College.  He  offered 
me  opportunities  for  seeing  operations  and  special  cases.  I 
saw  him  perform  the  Porro- Mueller  operation,  which  had  at 
that  time  not  been  so  often  done.  During  January  of  my  sec- 
ond year  at  the  Medical  College,  I  had  an  accident  to  which 
may  be  attributed  the  ill  health  which  has  more  or  less  attended 
me  all  the  years  up  to  the  present  time.  I  had  driven  with  Dr. 
Parrish  on  one  cold  day  in  January  from  his  office  on  Pine 
Street  to  the  old  Blockley  Hospital.  I  was  much  fatigued  by 
my  work,  and  probably  more  susceptible  in  consequence  to  the 
evil  odors  of  the  ward,  which  we  visited  together  to  see  a  pa- 
tient whom  I  had  seen  him  operate  on  a  few  days  before  for 
fibroid  tumor.  Without  any  warning,  I  fainted,  and  falling 
backward  down  a  step,  struck  the  side  of  my  head  on  a  marble 
hearthstone.  The  result  of  the  accident  was  serious,  for  the 
articulation  of  the  jaw  was  crushed  and  the  bony  ring  of  the 
ear  injured;  concussion  of  the  brain  followed,  and  internal  dis- 
placement of  the  pelvic  organs. 

It  was  some  hours  after  my  return  to  consciousness  be- 
fore I  was  able  to  be  taken  home.  Dr.  Parrish  spent  the  day 
by  my  side,  and  I  was  confined  to  my  bed  for  three  or  four 
weeks  before  I  was  able  to  lose  the  constant  dizziness  which 
followed  the  fall.  Even  years  afterwards,  suddenly  turning 
the  head  on  the  pillow  towards  the  injured  side  would  bring 
on  dizziness.  Three  attacks  of  peritonitis  in  following  years 
were  the  outcome  of  my  Blockley  expedition.  The  disturb- 
ance to  the  nervous  system  which  also  attended  the  fall,  forced 
me  to  give  up  such  close  application  to  my  work  as  I  had  pre- 
viously given.  I  decided  to  spend  four  years  over  my  medical 
course  instead  of  the  three  I  intended  to  follow,  but  owing  to 
continued  ill  health  I  gave  up  the  attendance  at  lectures  and 
clinics  for  the  less  exacting  scientific  work  where  I  could  con- 


14        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

trol  my  time.  However,  I  came  up  for  my  final  examinations 
after  the  accident  at  the  end  of  the  second  year's  course,  and 
passed  in  chemistry,  anatomy,  and  physiology,  with  the  same 
record  as  my  examinations  of  the  year  before. 

The  autumn  following  my  second  year  at  college,  that  is, 
in  August  of  1884,  I  read  my  first  scientific  paper  before  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  which 
was  meeting  that  year  in  Philadelphia.  I  had  worked  during 
the  late  spring  and  early  summer  in  the  laboratory  of  Henry 
Leffman,  but  I  was  dissatisfied  with  the  opportunities  for  the 
class  of  work  I  was  doing,  for  I  had  become  interested  in  the 
chemical  analyses  of  plants,  and  through  the  advice  of  scien- 
tific friends  I  was  introduced  to  Professor  Sadtler,  lecturer  on 
chemistry  at  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.  He  of-- 
fered  me  whatever  help  he  could  in  the  class  of  work  I  was 
then  interested  in,  and  placed  me  as  a  private  student  with 
Professor  Henry  Trimble,  who  was  in  charge  of  the  chemical 
laboratory  at  the  College  of  Pharmacy  and  had  made  a  special 
study  of  plant  analysis. 

About  this  time  there  was  published,  in  English,  Dragen- 
dorff's  scheme  for  the  chemical  analysis  of  plants,  which  was 
the  best  systematic  method  for  plant  analysis  published  up 
to  that  time.  Previously  to  the  appearance  of  this  book,  plants 
had  been  analyzed  in  a  haphazard  sort  of  way,  and  simply 
special  methods  had  been  used  for  the  isolation  of  certain 
compounds  that  were  suspected  to  exist  in  the  plants  under 
analysis. 

I  was  especially  interested  in  the  study  of  Mexican  and 
Central  American  plants,  not  only  on  account  of  their  not  hav- 
ing been  much  studied  up  to  that  time,  but  because  they  con- 
tained substances  of  interest  both  scientific  and  medicinal. 

The  facilities  for  this  study  were  very  good  in  Professor 
Trimble's  laboratory,  and  the  College  library  was  most  com- 
plete in  works  of  reference  and  journals  containing  the  litera- 
ture on  the  subject.  My  first  piece  of  work  at  the  laboratory 
was  the  analysis  of  the  bark  of  the  Mexican  candle-tree,  bo- 
tanically  known  as  Fouquieria  splendens.  This  tree  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Mexican  Boundary  Survey  reports.  An  interest- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  15 

ing  wax  was  isolated  from  this  bark  which  was  also  known 
locally  by  its  Mexican  name  ocotilla. 

This  paper  was  afterwards  published  in  the  "  American 
Journal  of  Pharmacy "  and  in  the  American  Philosophical 
Society's  "  Proceedings." 

Following  the  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  I  went  on  a  geological  expedition  in 
September,  1884,  into  the  coal  regions  for  the  study  of  plant 
fossils.  Later,  on  my  way  to  the  Susquehanna  Valley,  I  was 
taken  ill  with  peritonitis,  and  not  until  the  month  of  February, 
1885,  was  I  able  to  return  to  the  laboratory.  I  spent  the  follow- 
ing months  until  July  in  the  study  of  the  Mexican  plant  Yucca 
angustifolia.  A  paper  on  the  subject  was  read  at  Ann  Arbor 
at  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
meeting  in  August,  1885.  It  was  published  in  the  American 
Philosophical  Society's  "Transactions;"  also  a  synopsis  of  it 
appeared  in  other  journals  and  in  the  "  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science." 

My  attention  had  been  especially  directed  to  plant  chem- 
istry at  one  of  the  weekly  meetings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences.  Some  one  had  sent  from  Danville  in  Pennsylvania, 
specimens  of  what  were  supposed  to  be  Daucus  carota.  A  party 
of  children  in  the  woods  had  found  roots  that  were  supposed 
to  be  these,  and  had  eaten  of  them  with  disastrous  results,  as 
one  death  had  occurred.  It  was  probably  roots  of  wild  parsnip, 
which  greatly  resembles  those  sent  as  specimens.  Presumably 
death  resulted,  if  the  children  had  eaten  wild  carrot,  from 
conium,  the  volatile  alkaloid  contained  in  roots  belonging  to 
this  botanical  group. 

About  that  time,  I  was  working  in  Dr.  Leffmann's  labora- 
tory at  the  Polyclinic  Hospital,  and  I  made  some  experiments 
on  some  of  the  roots  sent  to  me  from  Danville  to  determine 
the  presence  of  this  alkaloid.  The  species  sent  were  not  the 
noxious  wild  carrot,  but  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Meehan  informed  me 
that  it  was  very  difficult  from  the  roots  alone  to  identify  the 
species,  and  that  the  only  way  to  ascertain  the  fact  was  to  plant 
some  of  the  roots  and  await  the  foliage.  The  chemical  work 
in  the  study  of  identification  fascinated  me,  and  from  that  time 


16  HELEN  ABBOTT   MICHAEL 

my  interest  in  chemistry  centred  around  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  plants  and  the  chemical  life-processes  at  work  in 
living  tissues. 

Some  of  my  later  views  on  the  chemical  evolution  of  plant 
forms  were  the  outcome  of  my  studies  begun  with  the  little 
incident  I  have  related. 

Early  in  the  year  1886,  I  renewed  a  friendship  dating  from 
childhood,  but  somewhat  interrupted  by  my  long  residence  in 
Europe  previous  to  the  eighties,  and  later  by  my  close  appli- 
cation to  study.  This  friendship  was  with  Dr.  Daniel  G.  Brin- 
ton,  and  for  many  reasons  I  regard  it  as  the  most  important 
influence  of  my  life. 

Dr.  Brinton  directed  my  thoughts  to  the  higher  intellectual, 
spiritual,  scientific,  and  artistic  regions,  and  the  year  1886  was 
one  of  the  most  formative  periods  of  my  mental  growth.  With 
few  exceptions,  our  tastes  and  attractions  for  philosophic 
speculation  and  literature  were  the  same.  In  flights  of  the 
intellectual  imagination,  I  have  never  met  any  one  who  was 
capable  of  soaring  so  boldly  as  he. 

We  seldom  discussed  the  details  of  his  scientific  work,  at 
least  in  its  more  special  phases,  and  I  think  I  never  heard  him 
speak  of  linguistic  subjects  or  of  the  characteristics  of  the  In- 
dian tribes  and  races,  but  we  often  conversed  on  subjects  ap- 
pertaining to  the  general  domain  of  anthropology,  and  we  most 
frequently  found  ourselves  going  over  the  broad  outlines  and 
theories  of  science,  especially  its  generalizations. 

Dr.  Brinton  encouraged  me  to  print  some  of  the  views  I 
had  reached  in  my  scientific  work.  These  were  afterwards 
collected  in  two  lectures  published  under  the  titles,  "  Chemi- 
cal Basis  of  Plant  Forms"  and  "Comparative  Chemistry  of 
Higher  and  Lower  Plants." 

I  also  wrote  out  my  impressions  from  the  study  of  a  collection 
of  pictures,  exhibited  at  the  rooms  of  the  American  Art  Asso- 
ciation, during  the  spring  of  1886.  This  was  about  the  first 
time  any  collection  of  the  works  of  a  school  of  French  painters 
called  the  "Impressionists"  had  been  exhibited  in  New  York. 
The  paintings  of  Monet,  Renoir,  Sisley,  Manet,  and  Pisaro 
were  among  the  canvases  displayed.  This  pamphlet  I  wrote 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  17 

after  spending  a  week  or  more  in  New  York  studying  these 
paintings.  It  was  published  under  the  pen  name  of  Celen  Sab- 
brin.  Copies  were  sent  to  the  various  art  journals,  and  to  the 
New  York  Art  Exhibition,  and  many  were  sold  at  the  door  of 
the  gallery  as  supplementary  to  the  catalogues.  This  article 
was  afterwards  translated  into  French  by  the  editor  of  "La 
Vogue." 

Some  of  the  Impressionist  paintings  especially  emphasized 
the  pitilessness  of  natural  forces  or  of  Nature  where  all  human 
interests  were  lost  to  view.  It  was  as  if  the  universe  were  a  huge 
scientific  demonstration,  with  feeling,  mental  response,  and  all 
that  goes  to  form  religion  eliminated.  It  was  the  inevitable 
onward  march  of  the  physical  life  of  the  world,  as  each  aeon 
brought  it  nearer  and  nearer  to  cold,  death,  and  annihilation. 

Such  thoughts  may  have  been  due  to  an  overwrought,  sen- 
sitive mental  organization,  but  it  was  all  very  real,  and  even 
the  sunlight  shining  on  the  green  trees  and  grass  brought  with 
it  a  suggestion  of  the  steel-blue  light  that  astronomers  tell  us 
prevails  beyond  this  earth's  atmosphere.  To  break  the  spell 
of  this  mood,  I  gave  up  the  study  of  the  Impressionist  paintings 
at  the  time,  and  even  the  study  of  the  physical  sciences  be- 
came so  painful  to  me  that  I  felt  obliged  to  discontinue  it  and 
find  relief  in  literature,  poetry,  and  whatever  else  suggested 
sentiency. 

It  happened  to  be  Holy  Week,  and  often  in  the  late  after- 
noon, I  would  drive  to  some  church  and  sit  there  in  meditation 
in  the  deepening  twilight  under  the  spell  of  the  solitary  altar- 
lamp,  symbolical  of  everlasting  light,  and  the  slowly-fading 
colors  of  the  stained-glass  windows,  as  one  by  one  they  settled 
into  the  common  tone  of  the  early  evening  dusk. 

Especially  in  the  domain  of  poetry  were  many  hours  at 
this  season  spent.  The  works  of  Goethe  received  due  share 
of  attention.  Alfred  de  Musset,  Murger,  Beranger,  Shelley, 
and  later,  Browning,  all  contributed  their  delightful  compan- 
ionship. Spinosa  and  Novalis  were  constantly  referred  to  and 
read. 

Dr.  Brinton  had  a  happy  way  of  selecting  passages  from 
his  favorite  authors  and  copying  them  in  his  own  handwriting 


i8        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

for  use  at  some  special  time  or  season,  and  frequently  these 
would  be  the  text  on  which  we  discoursed,  ranging  from  these 
to  wider  and  more  spontaneous  themes.  Wilhelm  von  Hum- 
boldt  furnished  many  passages  which  were  stimulating  and 
enjoyable.  George  Sand  was  another  of  our  favorite  writers, 
and  "Indiana,"  which, so  beautifully  portrays  human  devo- 
tion, we  found  well  worth  reading  more  than  once. 

Dr.  Brinton  used  to  say  that  writers  from  whom  he  could 
derive  no  thought  leading  to  the  higher  life  were  valueless  to 
him.  Balzac  contained  no  message  for  him. 

The  autobiography  ends  abruptly,  and  requires  a  little  sup- 
plementary filling  in. 

In  1883-84,  Miss  Abbott  acted  as  assistant  in  the  chemical 
laboratory  of  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic,  and  published  her 
first  scientific  paper  under  the  title,  "Some  Observations  on 
the  Nutritive  Value  of  Condiments." 

Her  paper  on  the  analysis  of  the  bark  of  the  Fouquieria 
splendens  was  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  and  in  the  "  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Pharmacy."  Her  studies  into  the  chemistry  of 
drugs  attracted  the  attention  of  the  trustees  of  the  College  of 
Pharmacy,  and  they  not  only  asked  her  to  lecture  before  the  stu- 
dents, —  the  first  time  that  a  woman  had  ever  been  thus  hon- 
ored, —  but  went  so  far  as  to  expend  the  sum  of  five  thousand 
dollars  in  purchasing  some  small  houses  at  the  rear  of  the  college 
building  adjoining  the  main  laboratory  and  fitting  up  a  portion 
of  the  space  thus  acquired  as  a  research  laboratory  for  the  use 
of  such  women  as  wished  to  go  into  higher  work.  Miss  Abbott 
had  here  her  own  special  apparatus,  which  she  imported  from 
abroad,  and  the  trustees  furnished  her  with  all  facilities  neces- 
sary to  carry  out  the  line  of  her  investigations. 

Dr.  William  Thomson,  the  eminent  oculist  of  Philadelphia, 
to  whose  stimulus  Miss  Abbott  was  indebted  for  much  of  her 
success  in  scientific  work,  did  not  approve  of  her  digressions 
into  the  field  of  art  and  literature,  and  urged  her  not  to  dissi- 
pate her  energies,  but  concentrate  them  on  her  chemical  labors. 
In  reference  to  this  she  says,  in  one  of  her  " Scientific  Notes:" 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  19 

"I  returned  with  renewed  energy  to  my  laboratory  work, 
which  I  had  omitted  for  some  months. 

"After  I  discontinued  my  medical  studies,  I  had  the  thought 
to  work  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  for  a  Ph.  D.  degree, 
and  during  some  portions  of  the  years  1885  and  1886, 1  studied 
with  close  application,  mathematics,  with  a  Mr.  Howard 
Lukens.  He  undertook  in  coaching  me  to  prepare  for  passing 
the  preliminary  examinations  which  would  allow  me  to  enter 
the  University  as  a  student  of  the  Junior  year.  The  Dean  of 
the  University  had  arranged  to  allow  me  to  pursue  my  studies 
in  chemistry  and  botany  with  a  view  to  the  degree,  if  I  should 
satisfactorily  pass  some  preliminary  examinations  in  mathe- 
matics, German,  French,  and  English  literature.  The  require- 
ments in  mathematics  were  considerable,  and  Mr.  Lukens 
worked  conscientiously  with  me  in  that  branch.  Mr.  Nathan 
Haskell  Dole,  the  writer  and  translator,  was  then  living  in 
Philadelphia,  and  he  was  introduced  to  me  by  Mr.  Henry  Ho- 
bart  Brown,  the  principal  of  a  boys'  school  in  the  city,  as  the 
most  competent  person  to  fit  me  for  the  examinations  in  the 
other  branches,  and  we  spent  the  winter  in  as  serious  work  as 
my  health  permitted.  I  do  not  wish  to  forget  mentioning  Dr. 
Frederick  P.  Henry,  a  well-known  practitioner  in  Philadelphia, 
and  at  the  time  when  I  met  him,  a  professor  of  Histology  and 
Microscopy  at  the  Polyclinic  College. 

"He  was  a  warm  advocate  of  the  higher  education  for 
women,  and  later  on  became  a  professor  of  the  Practice  of 
Medicine  in  the  Woman's  Medical  College.  I  took  one  private 
course  of  his  instruction  in  his  branches  at  the  Polyclinic. 
Dr.  Henry  was  interested  in  my  scientific  work,  and  after  our 
lessons,  he  would  often  keep  me  in  his  laboratory  discussing 
subjects  relating  to  science  and  literature.  He  was  a  fine 
classical  scholar.  .  .  . 

"Dr.  Henry  had  heard  me  speak  of  a  Mr.  Thompson,  the 
keeper  of  the  snake-house  at  the  Zoological  Garden.  I  had,  on 
several  occasions,  assisted  him  in  feeding  the  rattlesnakes 
according  to  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell's  method  of  forced  feed- 
ing of  reptiles  in  confinement.  He  was  desirous  of  seeing 
the  process,  and  I  arranged  to  take  him  to  the  Zoo  with  me 


20        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

one  day  to  witness  the  performance.  When  it  came  to 
the  point,  our  excursion  ended  merely  in  a  visit  to  the  gar- 
dens, as  Mr.  Thompson  was  not  willing  longer  to  undergo 
the  risk. 

"This  Thompson  was  an  unusual  character;  he  had  had 
few  opportunities  for  education,  but  he  was  a  keen,  natural 
observer  of  the  habits  of  animals,  and  he  had  made  a  close 
study  of  the  habits  of  snakes  in  the  wild  state.  His  interest  in 
the  snakes  that  he  had  under  his  care  had  resulted  in  his  ob- 
serving closely  their  habits  in  confinement,  and  Professor  Cope, 
who  often  visited  the  gardens,  enjoyed  discussing  with  him  the 
ways  of  his  pets.  Thompson  was  an  artist.  He  had  taught  him- 
self to  work  in  oil  colors,  and  some  of  his  canvases  were  quite 
creditable." 

Another  brief  extract  from  Dr.  Michael's  "Scientific  Notes" 
gives  fuller  details  of  her  experiment  in  trying  to  overcome 
the  natural  feminine  antipathy  to  snakes,  and  shows  how  zeal- 
ous she  was  to  help  along  the  cause  of  science.  Dr.  S.  Weir 
Mitchell,  the  distinguished  neurologist  and  poet,  was  at  this 
time  engaged  in  analyzing  the  venom  of  poisonous  reptiles,  and 
his  discoveries  of  the  deadly  alkaloids  were  exciting  much 
interest  in  the  learned  world.  She  says :  — 

"Thompson's  arrangements  for  snake- feeding  were  some- 
what more  primitive  possibly  than  those  used  in  the  Mitchell 
laboratory,  but  they  were  quite  as  effective.  A  stout  piece  of 
leather  nailed  on  to  the  end  of  a  wooden  stick  and,  with  a  loop 
for  the  strap  to  pass  through,  made  a  solid  noose  to  hold  the 
snake's  throat  securely.  Two  persons  were  required  to  carry 
out  the  feeding.  The  snakes  in  the  cage  were  disturbed  by 
touching  them  with  a  stick,  and  as  the  head  was  raised  the 
noose  was  quickly  slipped  over  and  drawn  sufficiently  tight  to 
allow  the  snake  to  be  pulled  out  of  the  cage  to  the  opening.  A 
small  porcelain  dish,  like  the  evaporating  dishes  used  in  the 
chemical  laboratories,  was  forced  between  the  snake's  jaws. 
The  enraged  reptile  bit  the  edge  of  the  dish  savagely,  and  the 
poison  from  a  sack  above  the  fangs  would  then  flow  through 
a  hole  in  the  fang  into  the  dish.  This  not  only  proved  a  safe- 
guard for  those  engaged  in  the  feeding,  but  also  served  to  use 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  21 

in  the  investigations  on  rattlesnake  poison  which  were  still 
being  continued  under  Dr.  Mitchell's  direction. 

"The  next  step  in  the  process  was  by  all  means  the  most 
difficult.  A  smooth  glass  tube  from  one  quarter  to  one  half 
inch  in  diameter  was  thrust  down  the  snake's  throat.  The 
assistant  who  was  holding  the  snake  by  the  noose  was  obliged 
to  loosen  the  strap  sufficiently  to  permit  the  tube  to  be  inserted. 
Finely  chopped  beef  was  then  rammed  down  the  glass  tube 
with  a  small  stick  until  some  ounces  of  beef  had  been  used  in 
this  way.  This  was  the  only  means  to  keep  rattlesnakes,  cop- 
perheads, or  the  poisonous  Mexican  lizards  in  captivity,  for  they 
would  refuse  even  live  food.  Rattlesnakes  would  live  many 
months  without  food,  but  would  eventually  die  of  starvation 
unless  this  method  was  resorted  to. 

"They  were  fed  every  two  weeks  or  later  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. On  one  occasion,  Mr.  Thompson  took  out  of  the 
cage  eight  or  nine  rattlesnakes,  and  let  them  crawl  over  the 
floor  of  the  room  where  we  were.  They  made  no  effort  to  mo- 
lest us,  but  the  sensation  was  rather  strange,  feeling  that  so 
many  poisonous  snakes  were  close  at  hand. 

"In  order  to  overcome  a  natural  repugnance  I  had  for 
snakes,  at  Thompson's  suggestion  I  used  to  pick  up  and  handle 
the  king  snakes  of  Carolina.  They  were  really  beautiful  crea- 
tures, but  their  cold  slippery  surface  and  constricting  propen- 
sities, for  they  would  twist  themselves  around  my  arms,  and 
only  by  striking  them  along  the  back  by  the  percussion  of 
my  hand  could  I  loosen  them,  only  intensified  my  repug- 
nance." 

Two  further  isolated  "Scientific  Notes"  which  she  left  in 
manuscript  may  be  pieced  together  and  afford  a  glimpse  of 
her  activities  during  that  memorable  year.  She  says :  — 

"A  portion  of  1886  was  spent  by  me  working  in  the  labora- 
tory over  an  interesting  bark  called  CMchipate.  This  plant 
contained  a  class  of  compounds  which  I  had  not  found  before 
in  any  plant.  On  analysis  they  were  proved  to  be  solid  hydro- 
carbons, also  from  the  same  plant  was  isolated  a  yellow  dye 
substance  which  gave  a  good  and  permanent  color  on  wool 
and  cotton  fabrics. 


22        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

"  A  short  vacation  in  July  I  passed  with  my  aunt,  Mrs.  Ellen 
Abbott,  at  the  Delaware  Water  Gap.  There  she  introduced 
me  to  one  of  the  resident  clergymen,  a  man  who  was  immensely 
interested  in  scientific  work,  and  who  had  brought  up  his  chil- 
dren to  be  familiar  with  natural  history  and  botany,  and  al- 
though his  means  were  extremely  limited,  he  had  spared  no 
opportunities  that  he  was  able  to  command  to  train  them  in 
scientific  methods.  My  aunt  knew  my  tastes  and  of  Professor 
Cope's  encouraging  me  to  collect  specimens.  He  had  pur- 
chased her  home  in  Haddonfield  and,  to  her  despair,  had  al- 
lowed her  beautifully  cultivated  garden  to  become  a  perfect 
wilderness  and  headquarters  for  all  the  small  game  and  rodents 
of  the  country  around.  I  desired  very  much  to  obtain  a  col- 
lection of  the  geological  specimens  of  the  country  around  and 
of  the  numerous  fossils  in  which  the  neighborhood  abounded. 
My  Aunt  Ellen  entrusted  me  to  the  escort  of  her  clergyman 
friend,  and  with  the  assistance  of  my  colored  maid,  Fannie, 
a  'stone-breaker,'  as  she  called  herself,  we  started  out  bright 
and  early  of  mornings  with  basket  and  hammer  in  hand.  These 
excursions  were  amply  rewarded  by  the  interesting  finds  that 
we  made. 

"Fannie  and  I  had  been  warned  by  our  friend  to  look  out  for 
copperhead  snakes,  as  the  ridges  where  the  fossils  abounded 
were  the  favorite  haunts  of  these  snakes.  The  color  of  the 
stones  and  ground  were  so  nearly  like  the  color  of  the  snake 
that  some  care  was  necessary  not  to  pick  one  up.  It  was  the 
season  when  snakes  were  plentiful.  Rattlesnakes  were  at  times 
encountered  in  the  region,  and  often  when  we  would  be  seated 
resting,  an  odor  from  the  woods  would  be  wafted  to  us,  and 
then  Fannie  would  say,  'Come  on,  Miss  Helen,  there's  rattle- 
snakes about  here.  Don't  you  smell  the  watermelon  odor?' 
As  she  had  come  from  the  South  and  had  lived  long  in  a  lo- 
cality where  rattlesnakes  were  plentiful,  I  did  not  dispute  her 
knowledge,  and  I  invariably  'moved  on.' 

"The  autumn  of  '86  I  attended  the  American  Association 
meeting  held  in  Buffalo,  and  I  read  before  the  chemical  section 
two  papers,  one  on  the  classification  of  plants  on  a  chemical 
basis,  and  the  other  on  an  analysis  of  the  Honduras  plant  Chi- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  23 

chipate  in  which  I  had  discovered  the  interesting  yellow  dye 
that  compared  favorably  with  fustic. 

"At  this  meeting  I  made  the  acquaintance  of  quite  a  num- 
ber of  scientific  men  and  renewed  the  acquaintance  of  others 
whom  I  had  met  at  former  meetings. 

"Professor  Edward  S.  Morse  of  Salem  was  the  president, 
and  his  delightful  geniality  never  showed  to  better  advantage 
than  at  this  meeting.  Professor  S.  P.  Langley,  whose  labora- 
tory I  had  visited  near  Pittsburg  in  '85,  also  attended  the  meet- 
ing. I  saw  a  good  deal,  too,  of  Dr.  Wiley,  the  chemist  of  the 
Agricultural  Bureau.  He  was  president  that  year  of  the  chem- 
ical section,  and  he  had  me  preside  in  his  place  on  one  or  two 
occasions  when  he  read  papers  before  the  section. 

"I  saw  a  great  deal  of  Dr.  Wiley  the  following  winter,  and 
we  talked  over  many  subjects  relating  to  my  chemical  theory 
of  plant  classification.  He  was  himself  interested  in  plant 
analysis,  as  it  was  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment, and  his  private  researches  were  almost  exclusively  in  that 
field.  In  my  public  lectures,  given  during  the  winter  of  '86  and 
'87,  Dr.  Wiley  came  from  Washington  especially  to  attend 
them,  and  assisted  me  in  arranging  the  diagrams  and  experi- 
ments in  the  hall  before  the  lectures. 

"That  season  I  gave  two  lectures  before  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, and  I  lectured  at  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  and  at 
the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy  to  large  audiences.  In 
the  spring  of  '87,  I  gave,  in  Washington,  one  of  the  Saturday 
lectures  under  the  auspices  of  the  Philosophical  and  Anthropo- 
logical and  Biological  Societies,  in  the  United  States  National 
Museum.  The  subject  chosen  was  the  chemistry  of  the  higher 
and  lower  plants,  and  owing  to  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  Wiley,  the 
government  greenhouses  were  placed  at  my  disposal,  and  a  liv- 
ing exhibition  of  plants,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  illustrated 
my  lecture.  Most  of  the  Washington  science  coterie  were  pre- 
sent, and  after  the  lecture  we  met  at  an  informal  reception." 

The  Philadelphia  " Ledger,"  in  a  long  and  appreciative 
notice  of  her  Monday  night  lecture  on  plant  chemistry  before 
the  Franklin  Institute,  called  it  "an  entertainment  altogether 
unique,"  and  remarked:  — 


24        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

"The  spectacle  of  a  graceful  young  girl,  surrounded  by  a 
battery  of  chemical  appliances,  and  explaining,  with  the  fa- 
miliarity of  an  elderly  savant,  the  valuable  results  of  laboratory 
researches  among  plants  strictly  as  related  to  commercial  uses, 
was  interesting  from  more  than  one  point  of  view.  All  the  other 
girl-students  —  and  Philadelphia  has  a  number  —  who  are 
engaged  in  original  research  in  various  departments  of  science 
must  take  courage  from  Miss  Abbott's  success  and  her  enthu- 
siasm. When  she  tells  us  that  we  shall  some  day  have  bottled 
up  for  purchase  as  perfumes,  the  delicate  aroma  of  the  buck- 
wheat cake,  the  delicious  fragrance  of  birch,  hickory,  and 
other  trees,  and  the  elusive  scents  that  now  fill  the  spring  air 
in  woodland,  meadow,  and  the  farmer's  fields,  it  will  be  seen 
how  fascinating  is  the  subject,  and  how  it  may  be  expanded 
from  the  rose  and  violet  culture  of  the  south  of  France,  and  be- 
yond the  orange  and  lemon  laboratories  that  give  us  now  such , 
rich  fragrance  and  flavors. 

"When  Miss  Abbott  prophesies  that  the  wax  in  the  sugar- 
canes,  now  only  an  impediment  in  sugar  processes,  will  one 
day  be  made  an  article  of  commercial  supply,  when  she  points 
to  the  paper  made  from  sorghum  canes,  and  to  the  pretty  pink 
specimens  obtained  from  the  familiar  yucca  plant,  as  witness 
of  the  great  magazine  in  the  cellulose  of  plants,  her  hearers  are 
charmed  by  the  practical  vision. 

"In  a  range  of  tall  glasses,  like  organ  tubes,  on  one  table 
were  shown  the  various  tints  of  the  familiar  logwood  and  mad- 
der dyes,  and  in  other  tubes  the  new  haematoxylon,  —  the  dis- 
covery made  by  the  lecturer  of  the  same  coloring  principle  in 
another  plant  hitherto  held  innocent  of  this  mercantile  im- 
portance. The  new  gum,  which  can  be  made  to  replace  the 
now  lessening  supplies  of  gum  arabic,  was  shown  among  the 
glass  jars  of  the  exhibit.  A  variety  of  sugars  was  also  exhibited, 
and  some  of  the  processes  of  making  beet  and  sorghum  sugars 
illustrated  by  the  camera  on  the  screen. 

"But  a  greater  charm  than  was  in  the  subject  even,  was  in 
the  clue  all  these  demonstrations  and  the  elaborate  prepara- 
tions for  illustrating  the  lecture,  gave  to  the  energy,  the  com- 
mand of  resources,  and  the  skilled  industry  of  this  young  lady. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  25 

The  laboratory,  the  prolonged  and  absorbing  study  into  the 
secrets  of  plant  life,  compelling  it  to  yield  up  its  foods,  its  fuels, 
its  fabrics,  its  flavors,  its  essences,  its  hues,  its  tonics;  adding 
from  hitherto  useless  plants,  or  developing  additional  resources 
from  those  already  partly  known, —  what  more  dainty,  more 
beautiful,  more  useful  work  to  set  before  the  girl- student  ? 
What  a  good  and  brilliant  development  of  woman's  work 
this  is! 

"It  is,  perhaps,  permitted  to  say  of  Miss  Abbott,  that  her 
inclination  first  led  her  into  the  study  of  medicine,  but  discov- 
ering in  one  of  its  auxiliary  sciences  the  unharvested  field,  she 
promptly  accepted  the  line  of  special  research  as  one  which 
fully  satisfied  her  ambition  and  her  talents.  She  has  made  her 
own  way  therein,  and  not  only  a  distinguished  position,  but, 
what  is  even  better,  she  furnishes  one  more  example  of  what 
a  girl  may  do  who  wishes  to  fill  her  life  with  occupation  formerly 
-held  to  be  only  possible  to  the  young  man." 

A  Washington  newspaper,  a  few  months  later,  commenting 
on  her  lecture  there  on  the  Chemistry  of  the  Higher  and  Lower 
Plants  remarked  that  she  had  "evolved  a  theory  by  which  the 
flora  of  past  ages  can  be  demonstrated.  This  theory  is  original 
with  her  and  is  attracting  the  attention  of  scientific  men." 

This  theory  would  seem  to  have  a  prophetic  bearing  on  the 
recent  experiments  made  by  an  American  scientist,  with  a  view 
to  follow  back  the  steps  of  creation  by  an  empirical  collocation 
of  certain  chemical  elements,  and  resulting,  microscopically 
at  least,  in  startling  imitations  of  vegetable,  mineral,  and  ani- 
mal forms. 

The  same  April,  Miss  Abbott  gave  a  lecture  on  Plant  Chem- 
istry in  a  course  offered  by  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences.  It  was  remarked  at  the  time  and  after- 
ward that  she  had  an  extraordinary  faculty  of  "bringing  the 
results  of  her  investigations  within  the  scope  of  lay  readers  and 
hearers." 

In  the  summer  of  this  year,  she  went  abroad  carrying  with 
her  an  unsolicited  letter  of  introduction  from  Mr.  S.  P.  Lang- 
ley,  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  to  its  foreign  cor- 
respondents, and  commending  her  as  one  "who  visits  Europe 


26        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

for  study  and  advancement  of  knowledge."  The  writer  in  a 
private  letter  accompanying  it  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
it  was  "  intended  to  be  more  than  an  ordinary  letter  of  introduc- 
tion to  an  individual  or  individuals  would  be."  In  the  notes 
that  she  made  of  her  experiences  in  various  educational  centres, 
at  universities,  museums,  and  laboratories,  she  usually  found,  to 
her. surprise,  that  she  had  no  need  of  any  introduction.  The 
magic  of  her  name  was  an  open  sesame  to  all  doors.  Her  re- 
searches had  made  her  known  to  the  learned  world  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Continent. 

These  notes  were  jotted  down,  as  she  went  from  place  to 
place,  and  were  afterwards,  as  she  found  time  amid  all  the  dis- 
tractions of  travel  and  assiduous  work,  copied  into  a  book. 
Many  of  them  are  accompanied  by  quick  pencil-drawings  of 
such  chemical  or  scientific  apparatus  as  attracted  her  attention 
by  their  usefulness,  originality,  or  peculiarities.  Occasionally, 
also,-  the  autographs  of  famous  foreign  chemists,  German  or 
Swedish,  are  attached  to  the  manuscript.  With  the  aid  of  these 
notes,  we  are  enabled  to  follow  her  pilgrimage — for  a  strictly 
scientific  pilgrimage  it  was — from  place  to  place,  almost  from 
day  to  day.  One  cannot  fail  on  reading  them  carefully  to  be 
impressed  by  her  keenness  of  observation,  her  enthusiasm  for 
knowledge,  her  readiness  to  adapt  and  adopt  every  improve- 
ment brought  to  her  notice,  the  breadth  of  her  views,  and  the 
wonderful  dignity  and  charm  of  her  attitude  as  a  representative 
of  American  science  in  the  person  of  a  young  woman  asking 
admittance  to  conservative  institutions  on  equal  terms  with 
men,  and  yet  never  in  any  way  transcending  the  proprieties 
of  womanliness.  She  was  accompanied  by  her  colored  maid, 
who  served  as  a  sort  of  bodyguard  and  symbol  of  station,  and 
everywhere  attracted  much  attention,  which  she  endured  with 
imperturbable  good  nature. 

She  went  directly  to  Manchester,  England,  where  the  Brit- 
ish Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  met  in  the 
early  days  of  September,  during  the  great  Exhibition  of  1887. 
Of  the  evening  meeting,  which  was  addressed  by  Professor 
Sir  Henry  Roscoe,  she  says :  — 

"The  hall  was  crowded.     We  had  seats  in  front  row  of  gal- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  27 

lery,  left  hand,  facing  and  near  stage.  A  few  green  plants  were 
arranged  in  front  of  the  platform,  and  above  rose  a  mass  of 
heads  of  the  most  distinguished  scientists  of  our  day.  The 
ladies  were  in  evening  dress,  low  necks,  and  many  aesthetic 
costumes  were  in  the  hall.  The  audience  present  seemed  of  a 
higher  social  caste  than  our  own  scientific  assemblies." 

The  weather  grew  unpropitious ;  Miss  Abbott  was  con- 
fined to  her  room  by  a  bad  attack  of  bronchitis  and  found  no 
other  amusement  on  the  2d  of  September,  than  "a  wiry  up- 
right piano,  Chopin  nocturnes,  and  the  Schumann  Carnival." 
She  records  a  call  from  Joseph  S.  Ames,  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  who  had  been  for  eight  months  at  Helmholtz's 
laboratory  at  Berlin,  and  complained  bitterly  of  the  primitive 
methods,  the  disregard  of  the  value  of  time,  and  the  boorishness 
of  the  students  that  distinguished  that  university.  As  she  was 
informed  that  it  was  idle  to  go  there  without  one's  own  ap- 
paratus and  with  work  already  planned  out,  she  notes  that  her 
plan  is  "to  get  a  number  of  products  ready  and  to  take  them  to 
some  one  laboratory  to  work  under  advice."  She  was  told  that 
the  celebrated  chemist,  Sir  William  Crookes,  and  other  distin- 
guished men  desired  to  meet  her,  and  that  when  she  should 
once  get  out  she  would  find  herself  " quite  a  lion."  She  says: 
"  I  am  gathering  experience  from  my  trip.  It  was  just  the  thing 
to  do ;  by  the  time  it  is  over  I  shall  have  a  clearer  idea  of  how 
to  follow  up  my  work.  The  meeting  with  men  is  the  greatest 
educator  for  me.  A  wide  or  limited  experience  makes  the  dif- 
ference between  people." 

On  the  4th  of  September,  she  was  able  to  go  to  Dr.  Edward 
Schunck's,  where  she  was  delighted  with  his  beautiful  house, 
grounds,  and  laboratory.  She  told  her  host,  when  she  saw  the 
yellow  brick  exterior,  the  stone  staircases,  and  the  walls  painted 
robin's  egg  blue  with  fine  gold  bordering,  the  opal  glass  window- 
panes  with  soft,  mellow,  creamy  light,  that  it  suggested  to  her 
mind  "celestial  chemistry." 

She  remarked  the  exquisite  crystalline  products  that  Dr. 
Schunck  had  isolated  from  plants,  his  specimens  of  substances 
dyed  with  chlorophyll  and  various  organic  products  in  a  glass 
case  with  pomegranate-red  glass  doors.  She  was  delighted 


28        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

with  his  library  and  its  rare  books,  its  walls  beautifully  tinted, 
its  frieze  with  the  Aristotelian  elements  —  air,  earth,  fire,  and 
water — represented  in  it,  and  in  each  corner  the  arms  of  the 
doctor  and  his  wife;  the  ceiling  in  blue  and  gold,  a  large  sun 
.  in  the  centre  and  around  in  squares  the  alchemistic  symbols, 
the  inlaid  floor,  beautifully  polished,  and  the  motto  on  the 
wall  end  of  the  room,  so  suitable  for  a  chemist:  "Thou  hast 
ordered  all  things  in  measure  and  number  and  weight.'1 

She  chronicles  meeting  Sir  William  Crookes,  who  remarked 
that  her  Yucca  essay  "was  a  model  of  a  good  scientific  paper." 
Professor  Leech,  of  Owens  College,  who  had  written  a  notice 
of  her  Yucca  paper  for  the  Manchester  "Chronicle,"  "was  ad- 
mirably polite"  and  showed  her  over  the  college,  the  museum 
where  were  "glass  cases  fitted  with  drugs  in  jars  labeled," 
and  the  laboratories  with  their  convenient  arrangements 
for  students.  She  was  particularly  interested  in  Professor 
Leech's  method  of  showing  the  effect  of  drugs  in  destroying 
nerve-fibres  and  the  "immense  effects  of  impurities  in  drugs 
on  tissue." 

At  a  reception  at  the  college,  she  met  a  number  of  distin- 
guished scientists,  Springer,  Newcomb,  Dewar,  Professor  Arm- 
strong, of  London,  as  well  as  Ladenburg  and  Lothar  Meyer 
of  Germany.  At  the  luncheon  of  sandwiches  and  champagne 
that  was  served,  she  had  some  chance  to  talk  with  the  Ger- 
mans. She  asked  their  advice  about  studying  in  Germany, 
but  was  informed  that  there  was  no  chance  of  her  gaining 
admission  as  a  private  student  in  Kiel  or  Tubingen,  and  per- 
haps not  in  Germany.  She  says :  — 

"They  gave  me  cards  of  introduction  to  Dorpat  and  Leipsic. 
Ladenburg  is  accomplishing  syntheses  of  alkaloids.  He  said 
he  would  never  come  to  America.  His  wife  would  not  let  him 
go  without  her  and  she  had  to  rest  with  the  children." 

After  a  few  weeks  in  England,  the  record  of  which  seems 
to  have  disappeared,  Miss  Abbott  sailed  first  to  Christiania 
and  then  to  Sweden,  and  one  of  her  first  experiences  in  Stock- 
holm brought  her  into  acquaintance  with  the  famous  Nor- 
wegian poet  and  dramatist,  Henrik  Ibsen.  Her  description 
of  the  reception  where  she  met  him  deserves  to  be  preserved :  — 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  29 

"September  24,  at  Grand  Hotel,  there  was  an  evening  re- 
ception to  Henrik  Ibsen,  the  distinguished  Norwegian  poet, 
whom  I  was  introduced  to  and  shook  hands  with.  He  was  of 
rather  short  stature,  ruddy  face,  wiry,  brown  hair,  and  side 
whiskers.  He  wore  decorations  and  a  wide  red  ribbon  across 
his  breast.  The  reception  was  held  in  a  suite  of  rooms  of  the 
Grand  Hotel.  About  nine  o'clock,  the  guests  passed  into  the 
large  dining-room  set  with  long  table  in  middle  on  which 
the  supper  was  placed :  cold  fish  dressed  with  delicious  sauce 
and  cold  peas,  carrots  cut  fine,  small  cabbage,  vegetable  some- 
thing like  pods  of  beans,  cold  potatoes,  delicate  cutlets  with 
peas,  the  Norwegian  game,  white  meat  like  a  partridge,  the 
berry  like  cranberry  only  smaller,  and  salad  cut  fine.  The 
waiter  passed,  after  serving  the  game,  a  tray  on  which  was  a 
sauce  and  little  dishes  holding  other  articles.  After  that  came 
a  kind  of  charlotte  russe  surrounded  with  ice  cream. 

"Before  sitting  down,  the  guests  go  first  to  smaller  tables 
covered  with  small  round  plates  like  soup  plates  with  the  food 
arranged  very  artistically,  —  cold  beef  in  thin,  small  slices, 
raw  fish,  sardines  left  in  boxes.  The  middle  of  the  table  has 
two  piles  of  plates,  which,  however,  the  Swede  never  uses  when 
eating  this  hors  d'ceuvre.  First  one  helps  one's  self  to  a  thin 
slice  of  bread  or  a  piece  of  the  Swedish  knakkebrad,  a  rye  bread 
which  is  like  Jewish  bread  in  appearance,  a  coarse  kind  of 
passover  bread.  The  knife  is  then  brought  into  use,  and  butter 
is  taken  from  a  large  butter  dish;  then  with  a  fork  some  kind 
of  cold  meat  or  fish  is  chosen  and  eaten.  I  noticed  also  a  small 
kind  of  fried  sausage,  and  a  decanter  and  glass  for  the  strong, 
white,  Swedish  whiskey. 

"There  was  an  absence  of  obsequious  serving  on  the  part 
of  servants,  each  person  helping  himself,  and  no  servants  were 
seen  helping  at  the  beginning  of  the  supper.  Wine,  claret  and 
sherry,  also  beer  and  seltzer  water,  were  opened  and  standing 
about  for  each  to  help  himself. 

"Before  drinking,  the  glasses  are  always  touched  with  the 
word  skald,  meaning  "health.'  In  saluting,  the  ladies  give 
a  little  courtesy,  bending  the  knee,  which  it  is  considered  very 
polite  to  do  though  not  obligatory.  The  men  bow  quite  low, 


30        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

nodding  the  head  twice  or  thrice.  I  noticed  an  absence  of  ear- 
rings; only  half  a  dozen  men  in  the  room  wore  them,  though 
many  of  the  ladies  had  their  ears  bored  and  doubtlessly  wear 
earrings  at  balls  and  the  like.  The  dresses  were  generally 
woolen,  of  dark  colors,  tastefully  made  though  plain,  very  little 
jewelry,  clean,  neat-fitting  gants  de  Suede.  .  .  . 

"The  reception  was  noted  for  the  distinguished  men  and 
women  present:  professors  and  their  wives,  a  young  man 
of  Stanley's  corps  who  had  walked  across  East  Africa,  Nor- 
denskjold,  who  went  in  the  Vega  by  the  northwest  passage 
around  from  Sweden  to  Japan.  He  shook  hands  cordially.  A 
famous  actress  of  Sweden,  Lenke,  zoologist,  LefHer,  mathema- 
tician, Hildebrandt,  and  Montelius. 

"Miss  Topelius  of  Finland  spoke  in  French.  Her  father  is 
a  distinguished  writer  l  of  Finland.  She  was  charming  in  man- 
ner, a  painter,  and  was  most  warm  in  her  manner,  patting  me 
on  the  shoulder  and  arms.  This  is  quite  a  national  trait  since 
Professor  Loven  and  the  chambermaid  did  the  same.  There 
is  much  kindliness  in  their  manner.  After  supper  we  went  back 
to  the  reception  room.  Miss  Inez  C.  Rundstrom  from  Kansas 
was  a  charming  girl  of  Swedish  parentage.  She  graduated  from 
one  of  the  Western  colleges,  having  begun  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics when  a  child.  She  is  here  studying  mathematics  in  the 
High  School  (the  beginning  of  the  University)  with  Leffler 
and  Professor  Sophia  Kovalevskaya.  The  teaching  is  entirely 
by  means  of  lectures,  and  those  of  Kovalevskaya  are  regarded  as 
very  profound.  The  atmosphere  of  great  men  was  about  the 
room.  The  tremendous  and  gigantic  strength  of  their  mental 
qualities  very  apparent.  Many,  if  not  all  the  ladies,  speak  ex- 
cellent French,  and  they  seem  more  thoroughly  educated  and 
trained  than  our  own  women.  They  met  me  with  such  a  de- 
lightful spirit  of  welcome. 

"Within  a  brief  hour  after  the  supper,  we  returned  to  the 
dining-room.  The  long  table  was  spread  with  a  row  of  glasses 
all  around  the  table,  filled  with  punch  —  alternating  color  of 
red  and  white  —  opened  bottles  of  seltzer  water  and  glasses. 

"At  the  end  of  the  room  near  the  head  of  the  table  sat  Ibsen, 

1  Professor  Zakris  Topelius,  author  of  The  Surgeon's  Stories,  etc. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  31 

his  wife  by  him.  The  other  guests  sat  in  two  or  three  rows  of 
chairs  around  the  room,  all  faces  turned  towards  the  poet. 
Sven  Hedin,  a  member  recently  reflected  to  Parliament,  made 
a  long  speech  in  honor  of  Ibsen,  and  then  it  was  responded  to 
by  the  poet,  but  first  each  person  rose,  at  a  word,  from  their 
chairs,  approached  the  table,  and  took  a  glass  of  punch  to  drink 
the  poet's  health;  he  had  also  a  glass.  Friends,  guests,  and 
ladies  hurried  up  to  touch  his  glass  and  drink  his  health.  Other 
speeches  and  responses  followed,  —  one  by  the  actress  in  which 
she  read  from  a  slip  of  paper.  A  singer  from  the  opera,  Miss 
Oka,  sang  several  Scandinavian  songs  beautifully.  She  is  from 
the  royal  opera. 

"The  same  spirit  of  solid  intelligence  I  feel  here  in  distinc- 
tion to  the  brilliancy  of  home  intellect.  About  midnight  ladies 
were  leaving,  —  the  reception  continued,  as  far  as  the  men 
were  concerned,  until  late.  Sounds  of  laughter  and  drinking 
came  to  me. 

"The  memory  of  the  reception  was  one  of  warmth,  intelli- 
gence, solidity,  and  of  the  highest  culture. 

"Governesses  to  high  families,  literary  and  artistic  persons, 
all  belonging  to  the  upper  middle  class,  were  represented." 

One  day  in  company  with  the  famous  Professor  Hildebrandt, 
whom  she  thought  "the  most  magnificent  intellectual  giant" 
she  had  as  yet  met,  she  visited  a  private  school  for  girls  where 
she  was  impressed  by  "the  seriousness  with  which  the  girls 
followed  the  class,  and  the  marked  interest  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher."  She  says:  — 

"The  first  class  or  reading  lesson  was  very  instructive.  The 
little  girls  in  turn  were  reading  from  'Robinson  Crusoe'  in 
Swedish.  The  two  little  pupils  on  the  front  benches  reminded 
me  of  little  birds  in  a  nest  reaching  out  their  heads  for  food, 
with  such  eagerness  did  they  correct  the  mistakes  in  pronun- 
ciation of  the  other  readers." 

With  a  letter  of  introduction  from  Sven  Loven  of  the  Svenska 
Vetenskaps  Akademien,  a  kindly  old  man  of  seventy-nine  who 
had  patted  her  on  the  back  and  inquired  into  her  work,  she 
visited  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  "high  technical  school" 
which  was  under  the  direction  of  Professor  F.  L.  Ekman,  and 


32  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

her  notes  are  full  of  drawings  which  she  hastily  jotted  down 
as  she  found  anything  in  the  way  of  apparatus  or  convenience 
to  interest  her.  She  discovered  that  Ekman  had  worked  con- 
siderably in  physical  chemistry,  and  that  he  had  studied  botany 
with  the  view  of  making  researches  into  plant  chemistry.  At 
the  Pharmaceutical  Laboratory  Library  she  was  shown,  among 
other  treasures,  copies  of  her  own  ocotilla  paper  and  her  lecture 
on  sugar.  She  also  visited  the  "Medical  Institute  which  is 
identified  with  the  name  of  the  celebrated  Doctor  Retzius  " 
(whose  wife  and  son  she  had  met  at  .the  Ibsen  reception),  and 
was  much  pleased  with  the  chemist  Jolin,  who  was  at  the  time 
"  engaged  in  research  on  the  acids  in  the  bile  of  pigs  —  a  very 
bright  and  intelligent  man." 

At  Upsala  where  she  remarks  on  the  fine  University  build- 
ings and  particularly  the  Grand  Hall  for  commencements, 
"said  to  be  the  finest  in  Europe,"  she  found  an  instructive 
cicerone  in  Dr.  Bovallius,  the  famous  geologist.  She  met  Pro- 
fessor Cleve,  the  discoverer  of  scandium,  and  was  delighted 
with  the  immense  activity  displayed  in  his  laboratories,  espe- 
cially in  original  research.  Professor  Cleve  advised  her  to  go 
to  the  Charlottenburg  Technical  School.  She  says :  — 

"I  was  impressed  by  the  fact  that  all  of  these  chemists  had 
studied  for  more  or  less  time  under  distinguished  chemists  in 
France  or  Germany,  and  that  they  are  continuously  going  to 
those  countries  to  renew  their  knowledge  or  to  acquire  more. 

"The  plain  interior  of  many  of  the  laboratories  is  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  work  accomplished  by  the 
men.  A  foundation  of  most  accurate  and  solid  information  and 
study  is  why  they  are  so  eminently  ahead  of  some  of  us.  Cleve 
seemed  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  literature  of  all  depart- 
ments of  chemistry.  His  collection  of  chemical  preparations 
was  complete.  Specimens  of  many  of  the  rarest  metals,  —  a 
specimen  belonging  to  Berzelius  and  one  of  the  first  double 
chlorides  of  platinum  made.  His  collection  of  organic  com- 
pounds was  equally  fine.  The  cases  containing  the  specimens 
were  of  the  poorest  and  meanest,  of  painted  wood,  dirty  white. 
The  cases  containing  the  inorganic  classified  specimens  were 
jammed  into  a  small  miserable  portion  of  the  room  immedi- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  33 

ately  back  of  the  lecture-table  —  thrust  upon  the  shelves  in  a 
way  disregarding  their  value.  In  public  display  of  museums, 
we  are  ahead." 

She  was  amazed  at  the  libraries,  both  at  the  Royal  Academy 
and  at  the  University  of  Upsala,  and  she  found  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  botanical  division  of  the  Academy,  as  conducted 
by  Professor  Willrock,  excellent.  She  says :  — 

"The  flora  of  Europe  and  of  other  countries  was  kept  in 
portfolios  behind  locked  doors.  I  never  saw  such  beautiful 
preservation  of  leaves  and  color  of  flowers.  He  said  the  colors 
were  only  preserved  by  careful  drying,  it  being  necessary  to 
change  the  paper  frequently  during  the  drying  and  pressing. 
He  had  series  of  dried  plants  showing  the  different  stages  of 
growth  and  development  from  first  to  last.  This  same  idea  was 
carried  out  with  the  plants  in  alcohol  (about  50%  alcoholic 
solutions).  This  means  of  keeping  plants  is  new  to  me  and 
most  excellent. 

"The  fungi  and  algae  were  prepared  by  taking  very  thin 
sections,  drying  and  gumming  them  on  paper.  The  spores  were 
allowed  to  drop  from  the  fungi  upon  paper,  which  preserved 
absolutely  the  arrangement  of  the  spores  as  they  are  on  the 
fungi. 

"The  collection  of  alcoholic  specimens  of  all  fruits  and 
fleshy  plants  was  very  large  and  superb  in  value  of  specimens. 

"Such  collections  and  the  ready  access  of  other  collections 
in  near  towns  cannot  fail  to  make  students.  Study  from  ob- 
jects, collections,  and  by  observation  seems  to  be  the  method 
of  study  generally  followed. 

"The  ethnographical  collection,  under  the  direction  of  Pro- 
fessor Smitt,  was  very  instructive.  The  specimens  were  outside 
of  cases  and  exposed  for  close  examination. 

"Smitt  is  working  up  the  fishes  and  has  made  some  com- 
parative measurements  of  value. 

"The  Laboratorrein  for  the  preparation  of  specimens  for  the 
museum  is  outside  of  the  city  on  a  stretch  of  the  Baltic.  Smitt 
took  us  in  a  yacht  belonging  to  the  museum;  his  wife  accom- 
panied us.  The  cold  was  intense.  The  water  was  covered  with 
little  boats.  The  maceration,  as  the  Laboratorrein  is  called, 


34        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

contains  an  enormous  tank  where  the  flesh  can  be  boiled  from 
whales  and  other  large  animals.  Other  smaller  tanks  are  also 
in  the  building.  Within  a  few  feet  of  the  door  rise  up  a  wilder- 
ness of  rocks  showing  glacier  action,  pine  forests,  and  a  dense 
impenetrable  wilderness  of  green  growth." 

Professor  Hildebrandt  showed  her  the  ethnographical  and 
archaeological  treasures  of  the  museum,  and  she  was  much 
interested  in  his  description  of  the  evolution  of  the  modern 
safety-pin,  where  gradually  useless  parts  of  the  pin  were  dropped 
"to  forms  of  mere  decoration,"  until  the  "ornamentation  had 
so  far  progressed  as  to  be  almost  unrecognizable  as  the  original 
type." 

She  remarks:  "The  idea  of  studying  evolution  by  means 
of  stone  and  bronze  implements  and  other  archaeological  rec- 
ords was  new  to  me,  and  my  interest  in  all  these  studies  re- 
ceived a  new  impulse." 

Hildebrandt  talked  to  her  learnedly  of  dolmens,  and  the 
stone  implements  found  in  them,  and  gave  her  an  impromptu 
sketch  of  one.  She  discovered  that  the  assistant  curator  of  the 
museum,  "who  had  written  ably  on  antiquarian  subjects, "  bore 
her  mother's  name  of  Montelius,  and  had  not  long  previously 
received  a  letter  from  a  W.  W.  Montelius  of  Colorado,  inquir- 
ing if  he  could  furnish  any  information  regarding  his  family. 
She  remarks:  "It  seems  the  name  may  be  common  enough 
here,  since  during  the  past  hundred  years  it  has  been  the 
fashion  to  latinize  every  name.  Persons  living  near  the  moun- 
tains may  have  been  called  Borg-hjem,  which  would  give  the 
name  Montelius,  from  mons." 

Professor  Hildebrandt  also  took  her  to  his  own  home,  which 
she  describes  as  "a  story  in  itself,"  its  study  facing  the  north, 
its  walls  lined  to  the  ceiling  with  histories,  Oriental  works,  and 
books  on  his  specialty.  She  noticed  that  there  were  no  carpets 
on  the  floor  of  white  boards,  only  rugs  under  the  tables.  She 
says : — 

"Hildebrandt  spoke  much  of  the  different  Swedish  customs, 
and  the  matter  of  dropping  titles.  The  younger  of  two  acquaint- 
ances would  never  suggest  addressing  the  older  without  the 
title  Doctor,  Professor,  or  Herre.  When  the  proposition  to  call 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  35 

each  other  by  the  surname  alone  is  made,  it  is  always  done  with 
ceremony  over  a  glass  of  wine,  saying, '  Let  us  drink  to  drop  all 
titles.'  The  King  and  Queen  and  Crown  Prince  would  address 
Hildebrandt  as  '  thou '  and  call  him  Hildebrandt  without  title. 
The  younger  members  of  the  royal  family  could  not. 

"In  rare  exceptions,  a  gentleman  may  address  a  lady  with 
'thou.'  The  case  given  was  where  a  very  intimate  friend  of 
the  gentleman  married  a  lady  who  was  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  wife." 

Taken  all  in  all  she  was  much  pleased  with  Stockholm  and 
with  Swedish  people  and  customs;  she  says  in  her  penciled 
notes :  — 

"The  first  impressions  of  Stockholm  are  lasting.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  attractive  and  beautiful  of  European  cities.  Its 
canals,  handsome  buildings,  its  sweet  pure  air,  its  dignified 
inhabitants  render  it  a  place  of  growing  interest.  The  polite- 
ness of  even  the  most  menial  is  phenomenal.  No  servant 
ever  addresses  you  without  first  taking  off  his  cap  in  saluta- 
tion. 

"The  pavements  are  of  Belgium  block  as  well  as  the  streets. 
Before  the  large  hotels  and  cafe's  are  little  tables  and  chairs. 
Large  trees  or  screens  of  growing  ivy  shut  off  one  table  from 
another,  giving  seclusion. 

"The  people  seem  to  be  under  the  care  of  a  wise  and  careful 
government.  Along  the  quays  are  life  preservers  to  be  thrown 
at  once  into  the  water  in  case  of  an  accident.  In  winter,  ropes, 
lanterns,  and  hooks  are  along  the  water's  edge  for  accidents 
on  the  ice.  .  .  . 

"A  market  day  in  Stockholm  on  a  clear  day  is  as  bright  as 
an  Italian  scene.  The  products  are  offered  for  sale  from  little 
white-awninged  stalls.  White  and  black  bread,  flowers,  fruits, 
and  vegetables  are  for  sale.  The  square  measures,  Morse  said, 
were  like  Japanese  measures.  I  noticed  that  all  the  baskets 
and  larger  boxes  were  never  oval,  always  square.  The  fishing- 
nets  along  the  banks  were  also  like  Japanese  ones,  only  round 
instead  of  square.  Several  resemblances  to  Japan  occur:  the 
shop  signs  over  the  doorways. 

"The  market-places  are  near  the  water's  edge,  and  all  the 


36  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

products  seem  to  be  brought  by  steamer.  I  watched  them  un- 
loading. Wood  is  also  brought  in  large  open  sailboats. 

"The  fish-market  offered  the  same  features  as  the  market  in 
Christiania.  The  lobsters'  claws  were  tied.  The  politeness  of 
the  market -people  would  have  caused  a  shudder  of  dismay  in 
the  minds  of  the  coarse  English  marketwomen.  As  one  ap- 
proached the  stalls,  the  men  kindly  raised  their  hats. 

"The  Swedish  language  when  spoken  is  beautiful;  the 
sounds  are  soft  and  musical,  flowing  from  the  lips  like  Italian 
words. 

"There  is  a  refinement  among  the  people  which  has  been 
prompted  by  their  surroundings,  their  great  institutes  of  learn- 
ing, and  their  pride  and  dignity  are  well  warranted  when  the 
country  has  given  them  such  men  as  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
Linnaeus,  Berzelius,  Charles  XII,  and  Hildebrandt.  .  .  . 

"Honesty  in  its  highest  expression  marks  the  character  of 
the  people  of  Scandinavia.  They  seem  often  slow  to  grasp  an 
idea,  it  being  long  before  the  transference  reaches  the  brain. 
It  may  be  possible  that  other  languages  do  not  so  readily  con- 
vey ideas  as  our  own,  and  the  people  have  developed  a  slow 
habit." 

From  Stockholm,  Miss  Abbott  proceeded  to  Copenhagen, 
where  she  was  everywhere  welcomed  and  given  encouragement 
to  come  to  the  laboratories  of  the  various  institutions  of  learn- 
ing. Professor  Steenstrup  himself,  "a  dear  old  man  seventy- 
nine  years  of  age,  and  very  lame, "  conducted  her  over  the 
Zoological  Museum  of  the  Royal  University  which  was  housed 
in  the  former  palace  of  the  princes,  built  in  1744,  and  nothing 
escaped  her  inquisitive  notice  from  the  catches  of  the  windows 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  fossils.  She  could  not  find  herself 
supporting  the  inartistic  effect  of  ornamentation  which  she 
says,  "were  birds  of  prey  coming  down  upon  the  dead  animals, 
as  Steenstrup  observed,  and  above  this,  and  as  a  frieze,  were 
windows  painted  and  trailing  vines  of  a  bright  green."  She 
found  Steenstrup  witty  and  of  artistic  feeling,  but  was  surprised 
to  discover  that  he,  like  Professor  Lb'ven,  was  not  an  evolution- 
ist, and  clung  to  the  "old  systems  of  classification." 

She  enjoyed  "a  lovely  drive  through  the  country  to  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  37 

Agricultural  School,  which  fully  repaid  the  effort."  "The 
buildings,"  she  says,  "are  over  very  extensive  grounds,  where 
all  subjects  relating  to  agriculture  are  taught.  In  asking  the 
usual  question,  if  ladies  would  be  admitted,  the  reply  was,  '  Of 
course,  but  they  must  study  general  agriculture,  and  could  not 
come  for  only  one  branch.'  The  gentlemen  in  the  laboratory, 
also  the  servants,  were  extremely  courteous  and  gave  me  a 
warm  welcome,  at  the  same  time  showing  me  over  the  rooms." 

Through  the  kindness  of  Professor  Steenstrup,  she  was  per- 
mitted to  visit  the  University  Laboratory,  where  he  thought 
ladies  "had  even  more  opportunities  than  in  Sweden."  She 
found  many  of  the  students  working  on  elementary  chemistry, 
qualitative  analysis,  and  the  preparation  of  organic  compounds, 
while  for  quantitative  work  they  went  to  the  Polytechnic  School. 
"Lady-students  are  admitted  on  equal  ternis  with  the  men, 
and  the  examinations  are  open  to  them.  They  receive  their 
diplomas.  Only  in  law  and  theology  they  cannot  receive  a  di- 
ploma, for  they  cannot  practice  those  professions,  but  they  study 
both  branches  if  they  desire  to  do  so."  She  found  that  lady- 
students  were  also  admitted  at  the  Polytechnical  Laboratory 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  S.  M.  Jorgensen,  and  that  several 
had  studied  there  though  "not  with  a  view  to  practical  applica- 
tion of  their  knowledge."  She  was  delighted  with  the  Carls- 
berg  Laboratory,  which  had  been  founded  by  a  Herre  Jacobsen, 
but  after  his  death,  in  1878,  had  come  under  the  special  patron- 
age of  the  King.  Professor  Hansen,  the  director,  "a  noble 
specimen  of  a  gentleman,  thoroughly  courteous,"  welcomed 
her  "as  the  first  lady  who  had  ever  visited  his  laboratory  on  a 
scientific  mission,  and  he  expressed  his  admiration  and  grati- 
fication." He  told  her  that  "his  laboratory  was  first  for 
the  acquisition  of  scientific  truths,  secondly  for  imparting 
knowledge,  and  that  students  sufficiently  advanced  were  free 
to  come,  but  they  must  be  acquainted  with  some  chemistry 
and  botany,  since  those  subjects  were  not  taught  element- 
arily." 

Dr.  Hansen  had  been  cultivating  many  specimens  of  yeast- 
ferments,  and  had  determined  which  species  of  yeast  gave  the 
best  beers.  Although  he  had  not  then  found  time  to  publish 


38  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

any  account  of  his  methods,  she  learned  that  they  were  car- 
ried out  in  a  Chicago  brewery. 

"Hansen  said  it  would  be  necessary  for  one  to  come  and 
work  by  his  methods  to  understand  his  work.  Many  of  his 
yeast-cultures  have  been  living  many  years.  He  said  that  when 
he  was  an  old  man  he  would  perhaps  give  into  the  hands  of 
his  successors  culture-cells  that  were  started  years  ago!  He 
keeps  alive  these  cells  in  solutions  of  sucrose.  He  has  experi- 
mented widely  in  making  different  species  of  these  organisms, 
and  he  hopes  to  work  out  experimentally  the  chapter  of  Darwin 
on  the  variation  of  species. 

"Hansen  has  promised  to  send  me  his  publications.  He 
gave  us  to  drink  some  of  his  scientific  beer." 

Early  in  October,  Miss  Abbott  left  Copenhagen,  taking  "a 
remarkably  shallow  and  long  boat  from  Korsor  to  Kiel.  On 
arriving  in  the  dark  of  the  early  morning  of  the  5th,  she  and 
her  maid  went  to  the  Hotel  Germania,  were  "shown  into 
a  large  cold  room  where  they  shivered  in  beds  covered  with 
down  pillows  until  eight,"  when  she  despatched  a  note  to  Pro- 
fessor Ladenburg  asking  if  he  would  receive  her,  and  on  re- 
ceiving his  courteous  reply,  started  out  for  his  laboratory,  the 
peculiarities  of  which  she  describes  with  the  usual  accompani- 
ment of  illustrative  drawings.  Of  this  visit  she  says :  — 

"His  rooms  are  in  the  university,  beautifully  furnished,  in- 
dicating a  love  of  art  and  refinement.  Ladenburg  was  charming 
in  his  manner,  so  courteous,  and  giving  me  the  fullest  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  apparatus.  What  a  pleasure  it  would  be 
to  study  under  such  a  man,  and  in  such  conditions!  But  it  is 
impossible  since  no  lady  can  enter  as  a  student  within  the  uni- 
versity walls. 

"Ladenburg  showed  me  his  specimens  of  synthetically  pre- 
pared coniin.  He  has  obtained  two,  one  which  turns  the  plane 
of  polarized  light  to  the  right,  and  this  one,  physiologically  and 
in  every  way  resembles  coniin  obtained  from  the  plant.  The 
one  which  turns  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  left  is  not 
like  the  natural  product.  He  has  been  many  years  obtaining 
this  synthetical  product. 

"  My  visit  to  Ladenburg  was  wonderfully  delightful.  I  should 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  39 

have  been  glad  to  question  him  as  to  the  course  for  students 
and  methods  pursued  in  investigation,  but  the  time  was  limited. 
He  had  previously  arranged  to  go  with  Mrs.  Ladenburg  to 
Hamburg  to  the  theatre,  and  it  was  impossible  to  undo  the 
arrangement.  Mrs.  Ladenburg  invited  me  cordially  to  visit 
her  on  my  ever  coming  again  to  Kiel.  She  served  me  to  choco- 
late she  had  learned  to  prepare  in  Holland.  The  service  was 
of  very  costly  silver;  a  kind  of  cake  curled,  and  tasting  like 
lady  cake  with  cinnamon, was  eaten  with  it. 

"A  visit  to  the  Museum  of  Antiquities,  where  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  boat  built  1500  years  ago,  and  other  Wydham  Moor 
relics  well  repay  study.  The  Zoological  Museum  and  Botani- 
cal Garden  closed  one  of  the  eventful  days  of  my  trip."  She 
spent  two  days  in  Hamburg  where  she  visited  the  famous 
Technical  School  for  Girls.  It  may  be  all  told  in  her  own 
words  which  were  written  down  later  in  Nuremburg. 

"October  6,  1887,  was  spent  at  Hamburg  —  Hotel  Kron- 
prinz.  Sent  my  card  to  Dr.  Wiebel,  but  failed  to  find  him  dur- 
ing my  two  days'  stay.  Early  on  the  6th,  I  sent  my  card  of  in- 
troduction by  a  commissionnaire,  who  spoke  only  German, 
and  from  a  lack  of  teeth  and  other  obstacles  in  his  way,  I  found 
it  difficult  to  comprehend  if  my  letter  had  been  delivered  and 
received.  No  answer  ever  came.  It  may  be  Professor  Wiebel 
was  absent. 

"  I  hunted  out  his  laboratory,  which  opened  back  of  his  dwell- 
ing upon  a  very  old  street.  The  houses  were  extremely  old, 
and  two  were  built  at  an  angle  so  close  together  that  passage 
between  was  quite  impossible,  and  even  the  light  was  impeded 
from  entering  some  of  the  windows.  I  had  difficulty  in  mak- 
ing the  commissionnaire  go  to  the  laboratory  door  with  my 
card.  I  remained  waiting  in  a  garden  outside  of  the  laboratory 
building.  Ten  pairs  of  eyes  watched  Fannie  and  me,  for  some 
time,  no  doubt,  wondering  why  we  came  and  what  we  wanted. 
During  the  delay,  I  could  see  through  a  window  that  energetic 
conversation  was  taking  place  between  three  men,  evidently 
assistants.  I  noticed  that  the  windows  were  utilized  for  carry- 
ing on  chemical  operations.  The  sides  were  of  glass  slats 
which,  by  an  iron  rod,  could  be  opened  at  will.  It  is  a  very 


40  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

marked  feature  of  European  laboratories  to  utilize  their  win- 
dows for  chemical  operations,  and  in  botanical  laboratories 
for  little  hothouses. 

"After  a  few  minutes  an  assistant  appeared,  who  most 
affably  took  me  over  the  Institute. 

"  Dr.  WiebePs  laboratory  is  a  private  one,  and  his  students 
are  from  the  University,  especially  during  the  summer  months. 
I  believe  one  or  two  ladies  have  studied  here.  The  only  condi- 
tion exacted  is  that  they  should  know  German.  There  seems 
to  be  no  obstruction  to  ladies  studying  anywhere  in  the  private 
institutes;  the  regulation  preventing  their  working  in  the  lab- 
oratories applies  only  to  government  schools.  The  Minister 
of  Instruction  himself  holds  the  right  to  grant  permission  even 
here,  but  I  am  told  that  permission  is  rarely  if  ever  given  by 
him.  The  rooms  though  small  seemed  to  be  conveniently  fitted 
up,  but  there  were  none  of  the  great  conveniences  of  the  newer 
and  larger  laboratories." 

Dr.  J.  Brinckmann,  Direktor  des  Museums  fiir  Kunst  und 
Gewerbe  in  Hamburg,  gave  her  a  card  to  Frau  Ree,  the  head 
of  the  Woman's  Art  Industrial  School,  and  on  the  following 
day  she  made  her  a  visit,  finding  her  "  a  lady  perhaps  over  fifty, 
with  hair  brushed  smoothly  down  each  side,  and  a  quick  blue 
eye."  She  says:  — 

"The  Gewerbeschule  fiir  Madchen  was  started  from  a  very 
humble  origin  by  Frau  Ree.  She  took  almost  from  the  streets 
young  and  ignorant  girls  who  had  no  training  or  education, 
and  in  a  few  small  rooms  had  them  taught  the  rudiments  of 
education,  such  as  writing,  arithemetic,  and  grammar.  The 
money  for  the  present  building  was  raised  by  subscription. 
At  present  the  institution  is  supported  by  the  school  fees,  and 
the  payment  by  the  public  for  work  done.  There  is  very  little 
capital  from  which  to  draw  money.  The  highest  school  fee 
for  one  year  is  180  marks.  The  average  is  150. 

"The  time  of  the  course  is  about  two  years.  The  girls  are 
expected  to  work  about  thirty-six  hours  a  week,  six  hours  a 
day,  from  nine  to  three  o'clock.  The  present  number  of  stu- 
dents is  three  hundred,  varying  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five, 
though  women  of  thirty  years  have  come.  There  is  no  distinc- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  41 

tion  made  as  to  rank,  all  classes  must  meet  upon  a  common 
footing.  Many  are  the  daughters  of  very  wealthy  men,  mer- 
chants, landed  proprietors,  and  others;  one  of  the  teachers  was 
the  daughter  of  a  landed  proprietor.  Even  some  of  the  teachers 
now  in  the  school  were  former  pupils,  well-to-do,  and  would 
have  no  need  to  work  but  do  so  from  preference.  Even  now 
in  Germany  it  is  quite  common  for  girls  of  good  families  to 
secure  positions  as  governesses  or  to  help  in  the  domestic  work. 

"The  girls'  schools  of  Hamburg  give  an  ordinary  good  school 
education,  but  there  is  no  'higher  education'  of  the  women 
here,  no  colleges,  and  the  universities  are  closed  to  them.  Frau 
Ree  considered  that  it  was  purely  for  a  monetary  reason,  as  it 
is  scarcely  possible  for  a  man  of  education  to  get  a  living  since 
there  are  so  many  educated  men  and  few  openings.  They  fear 
if  the  intellectual  avenues  are  open  to  women  that  they  will 
have  even  fewer  opportunities  than  at  present.  Frau  Ree  said 
Germany  was  a  century  or  so  behind  in  this  respect.  She  de- 
scribed the  North  German,  the  Prussian,  as  the  representative 
of  centuries  of  culture,  very  able  and  conscious  of  his  thorough- 
ness in  education,  a  little  overbearing,  but  really  of  good  stock. 

"She  described  the  people  of  South  Germany  as  lazy  and 
of  less  active  temperament.  She  thought  that  Wiebel  would 
have  helped  me  very  little,  and  that  there  was  nothing  of  spe- 
cial interest  to  me  chemically  at  Hamburg.  She  described 
Ladenburg  and  his  wife  (she  is  a  daughter  of  the  botanist 
Pringsheim)  as  being  extremely  delightful  and  advanced  peo- 
ple. 

"In  speaking  of  the  woman's  suffrage  movement  in  Amer- 
ica, she  said  it  had  done  harm,  and  that  those  women  who  were 
advanced  could  afford  to  wait,  but  that  women  were  not  as  a 
rule  prepared  for  it,  nor  fitted  generally  for  the  positions  they 
claimed  by  suffrage. 

"The  new  building  where  the  school  is  now  was  entered  in 
1874.  One  feature  I  noticed  about  the  school  is  the  fact  that 
very  capable  students  are  frequently  paid  to  do  the  very  finest 
art  work.  They  were  engaged  in  embroidering  samples  of  the 
kind  of  work  that  can  be  done  in  the  school.  These  samples 
are  sent  to  museums,  etc.  They  are  at  present  preparing  a  set 


42  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

for  the  Museum  in  Stockholm.  The  character  of  the  art  work 
is  general,  embracing  embroidery  on  linen  or  satin  of  every  de- 
scription, copies  of  Japanese  patterns,  on  crepe,  and  the  long 
embroidery  Japanese  stitch  in  colors,  beadwork,  finest  of  laces, 
etc.  These  samples  are  expensive  because  they  are  the  finest 
of  needlework.  Two  hunderd  and  forty  marks  was  asked  for 
one  sample  of  linen  which  contained  about  nine  different 
kinds  of  embroidery. 

"Frau  Ree  thought  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  sam- 
ples of  work  in  a  museum,  or  in  a  school,  showing  the  develop- 
ment from  the  more  simple  to  the  more  elaborate.  She  said  in 
case  it  was  desired  to  have  these  samples,  that  if  she  were  in- 
formed of  the  amount  of  money  that  could  be  spent  in  this 
way,  she  would  do  her  best  to  select  typical  and  good  speci- 
mens. 

"The  teachers  were  formerly  obtained  from  Vienna,  which 
also  has  a  famous  industrial  school,  but  she  found  the  teachers 
less  anxious  to  work  than  the  North  Germans,  and  they  now 
train  their  own  teachers.  She  said  the  drawing  was  the  most 
expensive ;  the  teachers  required  higher  salaries,  doubtless,  than 
the  others.  The  South  Kensington  Museum  Frau  Ree  felt  was 
too  limited.  The  work  done  there  is  exquisite,  but  it  is  usually 
done  by  ladies  in  reduced  circumstances.  Frau  Ree  thought 
that  such  a  school  was  much  needed  in  London. 

"She  has  various  departments  of  industrial  work  in  the 
building,  French,  German,  and  book-keeping  classes.  The 
latter  idea  was  introduced  from  Munich  and  Nuremberg. 
However,  there  are  few  opportunities  for  girls  getting  situa- 
tions for  book-keeping  in  Hamburg.  The  idea  of  women  tak- 
ing care  of  accounts,  etc.,  has  worked  so  well  in  France  that 
Frau  Ree  saw  no  reason  why  it  would  not  work  well  in  Ham- 
burg. Typewriting  is  not  much  done,  nor  is  there  much  call  for 
stenography.  Formerly  the  school  had  a  class  of  stenography, 
but  not  at  present,  since  there  seemed  to  be  no  demand  for  it. 
The  Hamburg  merchants  are  very  particular  about  the  hand- 
writing, and  one  of  the  first  questions  asked  is,  '  Does  she  write 
a  good  hand?'  Samples  of  the  different  kinds  of  writing  done 
was  shown  by  the  teacher  in  charge.  It  was  absolutely  perfect 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  43 

in  every  kind  of  writing  and  figuring.  Drawing  as  a  founda- 
tion for  forming  good  seamstresses  and  dressmakers  was  ac- 
centuated very  strongly  by  Frau  Ree. 

"Many  of  the  pupils  were  occupied  in  designing  original 
patterns.  These  patterns  are  afterwards  worked  out  in  bead 
or  silk  embroidery  in  the  art-room.  The  patterns  were  all  cut 
in  the  underclothing-room  on  scientific  principles.  They  were 
first  drawn  on  paper  according  to  measure,  then  cut.  They 
were  also  taught  the  rules  of  enlarging  or  making  smaller.  The 
sewing  on  white  goods  was  exquisite.  Every  kind  of  stitch 
known  was  made  on  pattern-slips  of  linen  two  or  three  feet  or 
less  long.  The  seams  sewed  on  the  bias  were  marked,  '  Felled 
seams  on  the  bias'  To  pass  the  board  of  examiners,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  made  a  shirt  or  chemise  by  hand,  as  well  as  other 
articles.  The  board  of  examiners  is  composed  of  men.  On 
being  asked  what  they  knew  of  sewing,  Frau  Ree  laughed,  and 
said  that  she  was  trying  to  have  women  appointed  on  the  board. 

"On  account  of  having  no  special  printing-establishments 
in  Hamburg,  there  are  few  opportunities  for  a  girl  to  get  a 
situation  as  a  designer. 

"In  speaking  of  the  little  regard  for  educated  women,  she 
said  those  lady- doctors  in  Hamburg,  who  had  studied  dentistry 
in  America,  were  not  allowed  to  put  out  their  signs  as  American 
dentists.  Also  I  believe  that  one  of  the  professors  in  the  dental 
department  was  not  permitted  to  use  his  American  title. 

"All  the  girls  who  study  underclothes-making  (they  are  here 
trained  for  going  into  large  white-clothes  establishments)  must 
learn  to  sew  on  the  machine.  Frau  Ree  said  that  the  American 
sewing  machines  were  the  best  in  the  world,  but  that  Ameri- 
cans could  not  sew  the  best  on  them;  when  Singer,  or  Wheeler, 
or  others  wish  to  exhibit  samples  of  what  their  machines  could 
do,  they  would  send  to  Hamburg  to  hire  the  work  done.  The 
pupils  made  entire  garments  out  of  white  tissue  paper,  sewed 
with  the  same  care  and  skill  as  if  it  were  in  linen.  Carefully 
feather-stitched  around  the  neck  and  sleeves,  the  little  chemises 
looked  very  dainty. 

"Frau  Ree  said  the  pupils  delighted  to  make  them,  and  she 
encouraged  it,  since  it  gave  lightness  of  hand. 


44  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

"Orders  for  underclothing,  art  work,  millinery,  washing 
and  ironing,  lace  renovating,  etc.,  are  taken  from  the  public, 
and  the  pay  goes  to  help  support  the  institution.  Frau  Ree 
said  that  any  industrial  school,  starting,  should  always  take  in 
work  from  the  public;  it  made  the  pupils  more  careful.  Fine 
work  would  only  be  done  by  those  who  were  no  longer  pupils, 
but  who  had  been  engaged  by  the  Institution  to  do  this  work. 
Room  after  room  is  filled  with  classes. 

"In  the  basement  is  the  laundry.  Young  girls  come  and 
wash  for  three  or  four  hours  once  in  ten  days  or  so.  They  all 
learn.  Frau  Ree  said  that  as  soon  as  a  girl  became  betrothed, 
she  came  to  the  school  to  learn  washing,  etc.,  in  order  that 
she  might  tell  her  servant  how  it  should  be  done,  or  in  case  of 
her  going  to  remote  country  districts  and  out  of  reach  of 
servants  from  any  cause.  It  was  quite  a  pretty  picture  to  see 
two  young  girls  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  starching  collars.  In  the 
laundry-room  the  laces  were  done  up  equal  to  new.  It  was  im- 
possible to  tell  the  difference.  She  said  that  many  ladies  brought 
their  finest  laces,  knowing  that  they  would  not  be  injured.  The 
charges  in  the  laundry  were  not  above  the  laundries  outside 
nor  lower.  For  very  fine  work,  the  charges  were  proportional 
to  what  was  done.  They  are  taught  to  clear  up  their  shop  after 
washing.  Frau  Ree  said  that  often  when  some  proud  girl  would 
not  condescend  to  wipe  up  the  floor,  she  would  stoop  down  and 
clean  up  her  place.  The  young  girl  would  color,  but  the  second 
time  would  not  leave  a  wet  place. 

"I  noticed  that  strict  discipline  seemed  to  be  exerted,  and 
the  pupils  were  addressed  with  much  firmness.  We  had  a  little 
talk  on  servants,  etc.  Frau  Ree  said  that  the  prejudice  in  Ger- 
many against  women  earning  money  was  still  very  strong,  and 
that  her  own  husband  would  not  have  permitted  her  to  take  a 
cent  for  the  work  she  was  doing  at  the  school,  though  she  re- 
mained there  from  eight  to  five.  Having  no  children  at  home, 
and  her  husband  being  engaged  in  his  work,  she  was  free  to 
give  her  life  entirely  to  her  work.  She  agreed  with  me  that  the 
servant  was  often  the  product  of  the  mistress,  and  when  a  ser- 
vant saw  that  the  lady  herself  did  not  work,  she  was  apt  to  im- 
pose. It  is  the  spirit  of  the  age,  said  Frau  Ree,  that  the  public 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  45 

are  above  work.  Work  is  looked  upon  as  a  disgrace.  Only 
by  years  of  patience  can  things  be  better. 

"Frau  Ree  would  have  liked  to  combine  a  kitchen  with  the 
school,  but  she  said  the  building  was  too  far  out  of  town,  and 
pupils  would  not  come  so  far  for  the  food.  Her  idea,  the  lead- 
ing one,  was  always  to  do  for  the  public. 

"This  lady  has  erected  a  monument  to  herself.  It  has  been 
a  colossal  undertaking,  —  now  a  success  and  running  fairly 
alone.  The  excellence  of  the  work  done  in  every  department 
requires  much  time,  and  in  this  respect  Americans  are  super- 
ficial, —  they  do  not  take  the  time  to  work  properly. 

"I  could  not  help  feeling  that  the  two  years  spent  almost 
entirely  upon  practical  work  was  at  the  expense  of  intellectual 
training.  Even  supposing  that  the  pupils  had  not  the  intelli- 
gence to  become  scientists  or  literary  women,  yet  absolute 
handicraft  is  narrowing  to  what  intellect  they  have.  To  in- 
troduce good,  substantial  work  and  art  work  into  homes  of  the 
middle  classes  certainly  is  a  good  scheme,  since  it  helps  to  refine 
and  cultivate  the  lower.  To  what  extent  practical  and  intellect- 
ual work  can  be  run  side  by  side  is  a  question.  Also  to  what 
extent  is  intellect  involved  in  so-called  practical  work.  Many 
of  the  parents  only  allow  their  children  to  stay  part  of  the 
course.  This  is  the  same  old  story  everywhere.  Many  of  the 
young  girls  are  only  learning  in  order  to  make  their  own  and 
families'  clothing. 

"A  half  hour  is  given  the  girls  for  lunch  during  the  day. 
Some  of  the  pupils  come  several  miles  from  the  country  to 
attend  their  classes. 

"We  talked  over  the  difficulty  to  train  servants  in  schools, 
when  they  had  no  means  of  support  during  their  learning.  In 
some  cases,  their  families  would  be  willing  to  help  daughters  to 
get  a  good  training,  especially  when  higher  wages  could  be 
demanded  for  skilled  work.  Frau  Ree  believed  that  the  public 
should,  from  the  first,  be  called  in  to  add  to  the  support  of  any 
school  of  this  kind,  and  on  this  account  she  took  in  immediately 
sewing,  washing  and  ironing,  and  art  work." 

Here  the  account  of  the  visit  comes  abruptly  to  a  close,  the 
remaining  sheets  having  been  lost  or  mislaid.  From  Ham- 


46        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

burg,  Miss  Abbott  went  directly  to  Berlin,  where  she  spent 
nearly  a  week. 

She  was  pleasantly  welcomed  by  the  distinguished  chemist 
Liebermann,  whose  "immense  collection  of  organic  prepara- 
tions were  most  interesting.  Case  after  case  was  filled  with 
every  variety  of  chemical  compounds.  It  was  certainly  a  start- 
ling sight  to  see  so  much  of  value  collected  together.  During 
the  lectures,  specimens,  as  wanted,  are  exhibited.  These  large 
chemical  collections  are  parallel  to  the  zoological  and  ethnologi- 
cal collections  in  the  big  museum.  It  is  in  a  great  measure 
owing  to  such  collections  that  the  excellence  of  European  wrork 
comes  in."  She  adds:  — 

"I  have  found  in  all  cases  the  utmost  willingness  on  the  part 
of  scientific  men  to  give  me  all  the  information  possible  in  the 
limited  time  at  our  disposal.  Never  once  have  I  seen  the  slight- 
est sign  of  impatience  or  desire  to  hurry  me  away  on  their  part. 
They  seem  only  too  desirous  of  imparting,  without  ostentation, 
information  resulting  from  their  own  work.  Here  I  want  again 
to  say  that  from  naturalists  (botanists  included)  I  have  had 
more  sympathy  and  help  than  from  chemists." 

She  gives  an  interesting  description  of  Hofmann's  famous 
laboratory :  — 

"October  12,  1887. 

"About  Hofmann.  A  silver-haired  man,  handsome.  One 
who  shows  the  result  of  high  school  associations,  amiable, 
even  charming  in  his  manner.  Speaks  English  very  well.  The 
places  in  the  laboratory  are  so  much  sought  for,  that  applica- 
tion must  be  made  far  in  advance.  I  am  to  write  and  apply  for 
a  place  in  his  laboratory,  to  avail  myself  of  the  opportunities 
of  extending  my  knowledge.  The  question  of  attending  his 
lectures  would  have  to  be  done  in  secret,  since  women  are  not 
permitted  in  the  auditorium,  nor  to  work  in  the  rooms  with 
the  men-students. 

"I  did  not  meet  or  see  the  members  of  Hofmann's  family. 
His  house,  10  Dorotheenstrasse,  has  always  been  the  abode  of 
chemists.  Margraff,  who  first  got  sugar  from  beets,  was  the 
first  to  occupy  it.  Various  busts  and  pictures  of  chemists  adorn 
the  laboratory  walls. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  47 

"A  new  name  to  me  was  the  Loggia.  These  are  rooms  which 
are  open  on  the  side  to  the  fresh  air  where  dangerous  opera- 
tions may  be  carried  on  or  reactions  which  give  off  deleterious 
gases.  There  were  several  of  these  rooms.  The  space  allotted 
for  each  student  is  small,  and  necessarily  requires  that  only 
one  operation  be  carried  on  at  once.  The  number  of  water- 
baths,  drying-ovens,  combination-furnaces,  is  extremely  limited, 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  students  must  wait  their  turns,  a 
slow  and  time- wasting  process,  but  impossible  to  be  avoided. 
Closed  tubes  are  used  for  combustions. 

"The  laboratory  looked  like  a  place,  a  home,  which  had 
not  the  personal  supervision  of  a  head.  I  see  where  my  weak 
points  are,  and  what  is  necessary  for  me  to  do  to  fortify  my- 
self by  study.  The  beginners  are  made  to  work  on  some  in- 
organic compound  first  for  qualitative  study;  then  they  are 
hurried  to  organic  chemistry.  It  is  the  worship  of  the  benzole 
ring.  The  assistant  told  me  that  it  was  all  he  cared  for.  Tie- 
mann,  the  one  who  has  synthetically  made  vanillin,  was  absent. 

"Hofmann's  study  in  his  house  is  quite  a  large  room  con- 
taining family  portraits.  Over  his  desk  is  a  marble  female 
bust.  The  furniture  is  black  and  gold,  sofas  and  chairs  cov- 
ered with  green.  The  carpet  looks  like  chinchilla,  a  velvet  one. 
The  chemical  lecture-room  of  the  university  (Hofmann's)  is 
where  the  chemical  society  usually  meets.  I  was  present  on  the 
opening  night,  October  10.  .  .  . 

"Hofmann  must  be  a  most  brilliant  lecturer.  I  cannot  help 
feeling  that  the  centuries  of  cultivation,  and  the  early  univer- 
sity training,  have  established  these  men  on  a  plane  which  we 
cannot  yet  quite  approach.  The  absolute  familiarity  and  rec- 
ognized mastery  of  the  subject  on  the  part  of  these  men  is  what 
the  student  would  most  profit  by." 

She  gives  a  brief  account  of  an  evening  spent  at  the  Session 
of  the  Berlin  Chemical  Society,  which  she  thought  most  inter- 
esting :  — 

"Liebermann  took  me.  It  was  not  a  very  large  attendance. 
Hofmann  presided.  On  his  left  sat  Pinner;  on  the  right  Lieber- 
mann. A  notice  of  a  defunct  member  was  read,  then  Hofmann 
introduced  me  to  the  members  present  by  a  very  pleasant  little 


48  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

speech.  I  believe  I  am  the  first  lady  who  ever  attended  one 
of  these  meetings.  There  were  some  original  communications. 
Then  a  little  discussion  followed.  Pinner  read  extracts  or 
gave  abstracts  of  the  papers  sent  in  to  the  society  containing 
new  discoveries,  etc.  In  some  cases,  he  wrote  formulas  on  the 
blackboard. 

"Hofmann  thanked  him  for  his  able  presentation  of  the 
papers,  and  the  meeting  adjourned  to  supper,  to  which  I  did  not 
go,  though  Liebermann  asked  me.  The  ladies  at  the  Lieber- 
mann  dinner  thought  I  did  well  in  declining  the  supper,  and 
that  I  should  have  laid  myself  open  to  talk  if  I  had  gone.  There 
was  no  temptation  on  my  part  to  go.  I  met  Witt.  He  speaks 
English  almost  perfectly,  indeed  with  no  accent.  He  is  a  large 
man  (young),  light  mustache,  and  wears  a  diamond  and  gold 
rings  on  one  hand,  a  seal  ring  on  the  other. 

"He  is  especially  interested  in  how  the  diatomaceae  dissolve 
the  silica  which  they  contain  in  their  cells.  He  had  by  no  means 
any  explanation  to  give,  except  that  the  amounts  found  in  them 
was  greater  than  could  be  expected  from  the  silica  dissolved 
in  salt  water.  In  speaking  of  the  amorphous  condition  of  starch, 
he  said  he  doubted  that  any  amorphous  substance  could  po- 
larize light,  and  that  all  starch  granules  must  be  crystalline, 
although  the  crystalline  character  was  not  made  out.  Lieber- 
mann's  communication  before  the  society  was  an  exhibition 
of  dramatic  gymnastics  on  the  blackboard.  It  was  given  with 
an  agility  really  phenomenal.  Liebermann's  eye  is  as  quick  as 
lightning.  A  rosy  face,  Jewish  countenance,  dark  beard  and 
hair,  rather  short  stature  and  slender,  make  up  his  personality. 
He  was  most  anxious  to  examine  the  chemical  compounds  in 
fresh  plants,  and  spoke  of  obtaining  indigo  plants  from  Mex- 
ico. He  thought  that  I  should  rather  work  on  some  well-known 
substance,  which  was  not  yet  studied  chemically,  and  which 
was  of  practical  use.  He  was  very  nice  about  my  work,  apolo- 
gizing in  regard  to  suggesting,  but  doing  it  all  so  nicely  that  he 
could  never  have  been  objectionable.  He  questioned  me  with 
interest  about  my  plant-compounds,  and  said  it  was  an  espe- 
cially interesting  field,  and  one  that  chemists  had  not  much 
touched  upon." 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  49 

After  her  visit  to  the  Hofmann  laboratory  and  to  Frau 
Liebermann's,  she  went  to  the  Industrial  School  Museum,  a 
building  adjoining  the  Ethnological  Museum,  where  there 
was  an  exhibition  of  students'  industrial  art  work.  Mr.  Ewald, 
the  director,  conducted  her  over  the  room.  She  says:  "All 
that  has  an  industrial  feature  is  taught  in  the  building.  Those 
departments  which  teach  a  trade  where  it  is  impossible  for  a 
woman  to  get  employment  are  of  course  not  attended  by  wo- 
men-students. Both  sexes  work  together.  Professor  Ewald 
told  me  he  was  the  one  to  push  forward  the  idea  of  admitting 
women,  and  to  allow  them  to  work  freely  in  the  classes  with 
men.  There  is  an  exception  in  the  life-classes,  where  women 
are  not  allowed.  They  study  from  the  living  model  in  the  pre- 
paratory school,  but  in  divided  classes  from  the  men.  The  other 
classes  in  the  preparatory  school  are  also  divided,  not  from 
prejudice,  Professor  Ewald  answered  me,  but  because  the 
classes  of  both  sexes  were  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  separate 
classes,  and  that  the  women  preferred  to  be  alone.  They  only 
joined  the  classes  in  the  higher  school  because  the  women  were 
very  few  in  number.  The  girls  working  in  the  few  rooms  which 
were  occupied  at  the  time  I  came,  were  timid  and  unaggressive, 
and  seemed  as  if  they  were  unable  to  resist  any  masculine  pres- 
sure, and  seeing  the  character  of  these  girls,  I  did  not  wonder 
at  the  impossibility  of  their  working  with  men  in  the  labora- 
tories. Yet  Ewald  told  me  they  had  never  any  trouble,  and 
all  went  on  peaceably.  There  were  drawings  from  casts,  the 
flat,  and  from  life.  One  room  was  devoted  to  modeling.  The 
models  for  beginners  are  first  modeled  in  wax,  part  yellow  and 
part  white  wax,  colored.  The  vases  are  modeled  in  sections, 
then  joined.  All  the  fine  modeling  is  done  likewise  in  wax. 
There  are  classes  of  anatomy  but  given  with  the  skeleton  and 
few  plaster  casts.  The  etchings  were  very  interesting.  .  .  . 

"The  Lette-Verein  is  a  large  house,  more  like  an  apartment 
house,  utilized  to  serve  the  purposes  of  the  school.  They  take 
some  boarders.  The  girls  eat  on  a  long  table  in  the  middle  of 
the  restaurant,  whilst  persons  from  the  street  eat  on  small  side 
tables.  The  rooms  are  small,  and  the  classes  come  in  different 
numbers  for  several  hours  each  day.  The  lady  who  conducted 


50        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

me  over  the  house  explained  that  in  Berlin  the  girls  had  not  the 
time  to  come  all  day,  and  some  had  even  other  occupations 
which  made  an  all-day  attendance  impossible.  On  an  average, 
three  hours  was  all  that  was  expected  of  them.  The  classes 
held  two  sessions  per  day.  The  second  began  about  four  o'clock 
p.  M.,  but  with  different  scholars.  The  attendant  told  me  they 
took  all  girls  of  respectability  who  applied,  but  as  some  pay 
was  required,  the  very  poorest  could  not  come.  She  said  they 
did  not  care  much  for  the  lower  classes. 

"The  institution  had  none  of  the  earnest  atmosphere  of  the 
Hamburg  school,  and  the  spirit  of  Frau  Ree  was  absent.  The 
art  work  was  quite  beautifully  done.  I  saw  none  so  beautifully 
done  as  the  Hamburg  samples.  In  the  Kunst-Gewerbe  Mu- 
seum one  thing  pleased  me,  and  that  was  the  photographs  of 
the  different  pieces  of  work.  Professor  Ewald  thought  that  it 
was  very  important  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the  effect  of  any 
work.  The  cooking  department  of  the  Lette-Verein  smelt  of 
grease  and  fat.  I  was  there  after  hours,  and  the  kitchen  had 
not  yet  been  cleaned  up.  The  washing- rooms  were  steamy  and 
presided  over  by  two  very  rough  washerwomen. 

"  The  scholars  themselves  very  seldom  do  the  washing,  but 
learn  from  observation.  The  ironing  is  done  especially  well, 
and  the  Institution  takes  it  in.  The  charges  are  high,  the  lady 
said,  in  accordance  with  the  good  work  done.  The  house  is 
under  the  especial  patronage  of  the  crown  princess.  Contribu- 
tions have  been  given,  and  the  scholars  pay.  But  the  lady  com- 
plained of  every  one  in  Prussia  being  poor." 

Her  experiences  in  Berlin  led  her  to  make  the  following  ob- 
servations :  — 

"The  position  of  German  women,  I  think,  is  unenviable. 
The  broader  avenues  are  shut  to  even  the  few  who  could  claim 
them.  The  domestic  training  of  the  women  to  become  good 
housekeepers  and  economical  is  excellent,  and  might  well  be 
copied  more  by  us.  The  thoroughness,  too,  of  what  education 
they  have  is  also  where  they  seem  ahead  of  our  women,  but  in 
comparing  only  the  more  highly  cultivated  here  and  our  own 
highly  cultivated,  the  American  of  to-day  is  doubly  ahead  in 
many  ways.  We  do  things,  perhaps,  too  quickly,  and  it  may 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  51 

seem  to  foreigners  superficial.  There  is  probably  no  woman  in 
America  capable  of  holding  such  a  position  through  her  ability 
as  Madame  Kovalevskaya.  There  is  very  much  to  be  learned 
from  the  Europeans.  Their  tenacity  and  patience  might  here 
be  imitated  by  us." 

In  Berlin,  she  was  invited  to  a  dinner  at  the  Liebermanns,  — 
"the  table  elegantly  set  and  the  food  deliciously  cooked  in  the 
French  mode," --and  she  found  it  most  interesting. 

"We  discussed  many  points  of  woman's  position  in  Ger- 
many. The  young  ladies,  after  leaving  school  at  sixteen,  take 
conversation  lessons  in  different  languages.  They  do  not  study 
from  grammars,  but  acquire  superficially  for  drawing-room  use 
several  languages.  They  paint,  do  art  work,  and  sing  and  play. 
Mrs.  Liebermann  thought  that  it  was  because  the  language 
lessons  were  fashionable  that  they  were  so  generally  followed. 
Mrs.  Liebermann  designed  patterns  for  artistic  work;  many 
of  her  designs  were  given  to  the  Lette-Verein.  Her  old  mother 
executed  them  in  work.  One  screen  nearly  six  feet  high  was 
most  beautifully  done.  Table-covers  and  other  embroideries 
wherever  art  work  could  be  used  had  been  placed.  This  is  very 
attractive  and  gives  to  nimble  fingers  employment  which  is 
preferable  to  the  waste  of  time  at  home.  Mrs.  Liebermann 
told  me  that  comparatively  little  time  was  spent  in  visiting  — 
I  suppose  she  spoke  of  her  circle  —  and  in  this  way  much  time 
was  spent  over  lessons.  Mrs.  Liebermann  took  the  lessons  with 
her  daughter,  and  I  noticed  the  same  elsewhere.  The  mothers 
take  an  active  part  in  their  daughters'  and  children's  education, 
and  if  they  do  not  become  renowned  women,  at  least  they  keep 
where  they  were  when  leaving  school  and  do  not  retrograde. 
There  is  very  much  for  us  to  learn  from  these  mothers.  .  .  . 

"The  ladies  complained  very  much  of  their  restrictions  of 
liberty,  and  how  Mr.  Liebermann  objected  to  their  doing  this 
thing  or  that.  It  is  a  question  of  the  man  keeping  the  control 
by  imposing  this  discipline.  Liebermann  has  a  Jewish  face,  red 
cheeks,  dark  hair  and  beard." 

She  was  also  entertained  at  dinner  at  the  house  of  Professor 
Pringsheim  to  whom  she  had  brought  a  letter  of  introduction. 
Here  also  her  notes  give  a  pleasant  picture  of  herself :  — 


52        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

"The  Pringsheims  were  charming.  The  old  professor  espe- 
cially was  kind,  giving  me  cards  of  introduction  to  those  for 
whom  I  asked,  also  to  others.  The  wife  spoke  only  German 
and  French,  but  the  daughters  spoke  very  good  English.  I 
cannot  speak  enough  of  the  genuine  kindness  shown  me.  Mrs. 
Pringsheim  invited  me  to  come  to  her  home  and  stay  with  her. 
My  letter  from  Ladenburg  must  have  been  especially  intro- 
ductory from  the  reception  I  received.  Mrs.  Pringsheim  thought 
that  of  course  it  was  strange  for  a  lady  to  come  over  for  such  a 
purpose  as  I  had,  also  that  Fannie  would  cause  attention,  but 
she  said  nothing  of  an  objectionable  nature  could  come  from 
it  as  the  object  of  my  visit  was  so  apparent,  and  Fannie  held 
her  place  so  thoroughly  as  a  servant.  Her  quiet  dressing  and 
respectful  manner  gave  at  once  a  dignity  to  my  position. 

"At  the  dinner  were  Professor,  Mrs.  and  Miss  Pringsheim, 
also  Miss  Du  Bois  Raymond.  The  table  was  set  with  autumn 
leaves  as  decoration.  They  blended  beautifully  with  the  fruit 
on  the  table.  Professor  Pringsheim  rather  showed  signs  of 
slight  displeasure  with  the  decoration.  Mrs.  Pringsheim  re- 
sponded that  Professor  Pringsheim  cared  only  for  chlorophyll. 
I  replied  that  I  did  not  like  chlorophyll,  it  was  too  difficult  a 
subject.  Professor  Pringsheim  in  his  list  of  botanists  of  all  the 
world  (it  was  a  printed  volume)  had  written  down  my  name 
in  ink  as  one  of  the  botanists  of  Philadelphia.  The  dear  old 
man  showed  it  to  me.  He  has  a  laboratory  of  his  own,  where  he 
works  when  he  feels  like  it.  His  home  is  large,  and  has  a  garden 
attached.  Some  figs  on  the  table  had  grown  in  it." 

She  also  describes  interestingly  an  hour  spent  with  Kny 
in  his  laboratory  at  the  Agricultural  School.  "I  went  to  him 
on  Thursday,  Oct.  13,  after  my  visit  to  Landolt's  laboratory. 
Kny  has  a  good  library  attached  to  his  rooms.  The  'Botanischer 
Jahresbericht '  contains  extracts  of  all  the  botanical  publica- 
tions, and  Kny  said  I  should  send  to  Dr.  E.  Koehne  (Friedenau 
bei  Berlin)  my  papers  for  notice.  He  has,  in  connection  with 
his  rooms,  a  hothouse  for  the  cultivation  of  the  necessary  plants 
required  for  use  in  teaching.  Both  Schwendener  and  Kny  are 
principally  occupied  with  the  mechanical  rule  of  plant-phy- 
siology. Schwendener  told  me  there  was  just  now  wanting 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  53 

in  Germany  a  man  who  would  devote  himself  to  chemical 
physiology. 

"Water-culture  experiments  are  carried  on  here  some- 
times. He  had  a  table  on  wheels  which  ran  on  a  rail  to  an 
outside  balcony  where  the  jars  could  have  access  to  the  air 
and  light.  The  wheels  were  controlled  to  go  very  slowly  by  a 
kind  of  crank.  The  hothouse  was  built  quite  on  the  top  of 
the  house  so  that  there  was  no  obstruction  to  light  and  air. 
Kny  has  displayed  much  originality  in  his  methods  of  ar- 
ranging his  plants.  He  has  injected  many  by  mixing  with  the 
soil  colors  that  have  been  taken  up  and  followed  along  the 
tracks  of  certain  vessels.  In  drying,  the  lines  of  these  vessels 
can  be  most  distinctly  seen. 

"He  has  his  dried  specimens  between  sheets  of  heavy  paper 
and  then  placed  in  pasteboard  boxes  about  the  dimensions 
of  a  music  portfolio,  and  four  to  six  inches  deep.  His  fungi 
are  classified  according  to  morphological  points,  or  rather 
all  morphological  points  which  can  be  brought  out  as  particu- 
larly characteristic  are  noted  on  the  covers  as  features.  The 
morphological  characters  of  fungi  are  so  strongly  marked 
that  they  offer  great  chances  for  this  means  of  identification. 
The  phaenogams  and  even  the  cryptogams  had  their  various 
physiological  or  chemical  characters  given  on  the  portfolios 
when  they  were  especially  notable.  I  think  Kny  had  one 
portfolio  devoted  to  plants  especially  characterized  by  con- 
taining iodine. 

"The  paper  describing  all  this  Kny  presented  to  me.  He 
is  still  a  young  man  of  perhaps  forty  or  more,  and  he  was  most 
desirous  of  having  me  write  him  and  meet  his  family  on  Sun- 
day. I  could  not  go,  however,  as  I  left  too  early  to  undertake 
it.  He  had  many  specimens  of  Brendel's  botanical  models, 
and  praised  them  highly  for  the  purposes  they  are  intended 
to  meet.  Kny  is  also  the  author  of  botanical  charts  which 
I  first  saw  in  Copenhagen.  They  are  drawn  large  and  from 
the  specimens.  ...  He  said  it  might  be  possible  for  me  to 
work  with  him,  but  I  might  have  to  be  in  his  dark  room. 
This  was  indeed  a  funereal  chamber,  painted  black.  For- 
merly it  was  used  for  conducting  spectroscopic  experiments." 


54  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

She  goes  on  to  describe  a  visit  to  Professor  Schwendener 
to  whom  she  brought  a  card  of  introduction  given  her  by 
Professor  Pringsheim.  He  received  her  pleasantly  on  Sunday 
at  his  home,  and  made  an  appointment  for  her  to  inspect 
his  laboratories  in  the  Botanical  Institution  on  Dorotheen- 
strasse  near  Hoffmann's  house. 

"Schwendener,"  she  says,  "was  rather  afraid  to  say  he 
would  admit  a  lady- student.  He  was  very  firm  in  his  opinion 
that  the  Minister  of  Instruction  was  so  much  opposed  to 
ladies  being  admitted  that  it  would  be  exceedingly  rare  to 
have  the  permission,  and  to  do  so  without  permission,  was 
to  lay  one's  self  open  to  a  severe  reprimand.  It  is  quite 
opposed  to  the  regulations  to  have  any  women  present  in  the 
lecture  auditoriums,  and  when  women  attend  lectures,  they 
must  do  so  under  cover,  behind  a  screen,  or  back  of  a  window 
or  door.  Schwendener  said  he  had  been  much  reprehended 
for  having  Miss  Gregory  as  a  student,  but  as  he  had  her  in 
his  private  room,  no  one  had  a  right  to  complain.  My  con- 
versation with  Schwendener  was  interesting  in  the  extreme. 
My  idea  of  chemical  constituents  was  new  to  him.  His  only 
speaking  German  and  French  was  a  disadvantage  as  I  was 
unable  to  do  myself  full  justice.  Both  he  and  Kny  offered  to 
do  anything  for  me  which  lay  in  their  power.  Kny  especially 
offered  his  services." 

She  remarks  on  the  tremendous  advantage  that  European 
students  had  over  American  in  the  opportunities  afforded 
by  the  universities,  museums,  and  gardens.  She  was  amazed 
at  the  great  Botanical  Garden  of  Berlin,  with  its  20,000  speci- 
mens, its  stupendous  palm-house,  and  its  facilities  for  study- 
ing different  species  "classified  according  to  order  and  all 
fully  labeled."  But  she  thought  that  the  trees  "seemed  rather 
miniature  and  poorly  nourished,  especially  those  from  other 
countries,  and  our  American  trees."  She  adds:  "The  more 
I  go,  the  more  I  see  the  absolute  necessity  of  knowing  the  art 
of  drawing  sufficiently  to  reproduce  what  one  observes;"  and 
this  leads  by  a  natural  transition  to  a  brief  comment  on  her 
enjoyment  of  the  National  Museum,  the  Kaulbach  frescoes,  the 
splendid  ancient  statues  and  the  fine  paintings  of  the  old  masters. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  55 

Indeed  she  found  so  much  to  interest  her  in  Berlin  "with 
its  colossal  advantages  that  her  stay  of  but  a  week,  when 
months  of  residence  was  required,  seemed  "only  an  aggra- 
vation." She  did  not  have  time  even  to  present  all  her  letters 
of  introduction.  Thus  she  refrained  from  seeking  out  the 
famous  Virchow,  or  Koch,  the  great  experimenter,  and  several 
others;  but  she  consoled  herself  by  remarking  modestly,  — 

"Perhaps,  too,  an  idea  that  I  had  no  claim  to  intrude  upon 
these  men,  helped  to  keep  me  away." 

Under  the  impetus  of  her  art  enthusiasm,  so  rekindled  in 
Berlin,  she  went,  directly  on  her  arrival  at  Dresden,  on  the 
i6th  of  October,  to  the  Gallery  and  to  the  room  containing 
the  Sistine  Madonna,  the  effect  of  which  she  chronicles  as 
overpowering.  She  immediately  entered  into  an  elaborate 
study  of  the  colors,  with  the  thought  that  a  comparison  of 
the  predominant  tones  used  by  different  painters  would  be 
interesting,  and  the  suggestion  "that  the  colors  obtained  by 
one  master  may  be  owing  to  certain  impurities,"  non-existent 
in  other  localities,  with  the  possibility  that  "our  chemically 
pure  colors  of  to-day  are  perhaps  the  artist's  worst  enemies." 
She  would  have  been  glad  to  spend  months  of  study  over  the 
collection  of  pictures,  many  of  which  were  to  her  "dreams  of 
beauty,"  but  she  had  only  two  days  to  spend  in  Dresden,  "the 
charming  old  place  of  her  childhood,"  and  there  was  much 
else  for  her  to  accomplish.  One  thing  she  did  not  neglect  to  do, 
and  that  was  to  visit  her  former  music  teacher,  whom  she 
found  still  unmarried,  and  living  with  her  old  mother  and  sister 
in  rooms  "filled  with  artistic  souvenirs."  Before  making  any 
investigation  of  the  chemical  facilities  of  Dresden  she  visited 
the  wonderful  glass-works  of  the  celebrated  Blaschkas,  and 
an  extract  from  her  account  of  them,  well  merits  insertion 
here,  — 

"The  father  (who  formerly  made  glass  eyes)  had  been  in 
America  many  years  ago.  He  spoke  Polish,  Bohemian,  Italian, 
and  German.  They  have  recently  begun  to  model  flowers 
after  nature.  They  are  artistic  productions  and  accurate, 
after  life.  It  would  be  a  stupendous  addition  as  a  botanical 
collection  of  flowers  for  a  museum.  It  has  occurred  to  me 


56  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

that  by  beginning  on  a  small  scale  I  could  collect  the  plants 
or  these  models  and  also  have  the  chemical  compounds  con- 
tained in  these  plants,  at  least  those  compounds  of  sufficient 
importance.  Blaschka  has  offered  for  $1000  to  make  Pro- 
fessor Goodale,  of  Harvard,  a  unique  collection.  He  has  as 
yet  not  replied,  and  I  asked  him  to  write  me  in  case  Goodale 
should  not  be  able  to  accomplish  it.1 

"They  said  it  would  be  necessary  to  deposit  a  certain  amount, 
perhaps  the  sum  that  I  wished  to  expend  for  the  collection, 
and  they  would  furnish  by  degrees,  the  flowers.  They  pre- 
ferred to  make  the  flowers  directly  from  the  growing  plants 
and  not  from  drawings.  The  matter  was  left  in  such  a  way 
that  I  was  to  write  him  what  I  wanted  and  the  amount  I  was 
willing  to  expend  on  the  plants.  It  is  difficult  yet  to  decide 
upon  what  I  would  order,  whether  flowers  to  illustrate  an 
evolutionary  order,  or  those  which  apply  directly  to  my  work. 
It  will  be  later  decided.  I  have  an  idea  of  forming  a  collection 
to  become  an  embryo  museum  where  the  chemical  compounds 
contained  in  any  plant  would  be  exhibited,  and  all  else  in  con- 
nection with  the  plant  also  shown.  But  the  chemical  side 
made  the  most  conspicuous. 

"It  would  be  a  stupendous  work  to  carry  out  such  a  plan 
as  I  have  conceived.  But  with  a  great  fixed  purpose,  there  would 
be  little  time  left  for  outside  matters  to  come  along  as  inter- 
ruptions. I  know  of  no  place  where  the  two  ideas  of  botany 
and  chemistry  could  be  combined. 

"The  workshop  of  these  men  was  a  very  small  room.  The 
flame  was  furnished  by  a  paraffine  lamp.  It  is  not  only  glass 
blowing,  but  they  called  it  modeling.  Various  colors  of  glass 
are  used,  and  the  flowers  are  also  painted." 

Her  time  being  so  limited,  she  determined  to  concentrate 
it  on  the  Polytechnic  which  she  learned  ranked  almost  with  a 
university  for  the  grade  of  studies  followed,  though  the  students 
rarely  studied  for  the  love  of  study,  but  generally  because 
they  wished  to  follow  some  profession  or  business.  Women 

1  The  arrangement  was  subsequently  made,  and  Harvard  University  has  a 
unique  collection  of  the  Blaschka  glass  flowers,  which  are  the  admiration  of 
every  visitor. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  57 

were  not  admitted,  "because  there  were  no  places  for  them 
in  the  professions,  and  it  never  seemed  to  occur  to  the  director 
that  they  might  wish  to  study  for  the  study's  sake." 

Professor  Walter  Hempel,  who  had  married  an  American 
wife  and  spoke  English,  received  her  "with  the  greatest 
kindness,"  and  made  an  appointment  with  her  to  visit  the 
laboratories,  where  he  afterwards  showed  her  many  inter- 
esting pieces  of  apparatus  which  he  had  invented,  particu- 
larly for  his  specialty  of  gas  investigation.  She  says:  - 

"The  atmosphere  for  study  was  most  promising,  and  I 
was  very  much  delighted  with  all  I  saw.  Hempel  impressed 
me  as  a  very  able  man,  and  one  whose  methods  of  gas-analysis 
were  both  simple  and  good.  .  .  .  Hempel  went  over  each 
room  describing  to  me  the  methods  and  uses  of  his  apparatus. 
Nothing  could  be  more  charming  than  his  manner,  and  he 
is  one  of  the  exceptionally  pleasant  chemists  I  have  yet  met. 
It  seems  to  be  a  sad  fact  that  the  farther  removed  the  man 
is  from  the  study  of  life,  just  so  far  is  his  nature  blunt.  The 
botanists  have  been  by  far  the  most  agreeable  and  willing  to 
aid  me.  My  visit  to  this  laboratory  is  one  of  the  bright  days 
of  this  journey." 

Dr.  Hempel  gave  her  an  introduction  to  his  colleague,  Drude, 
and  she  was  most  enthusiastic  over  his  kindness  to  her.  She 
thus  describes  it :  — 

"What  can  I  begin  to  say  of  my  visit  to  Drude!  For  he 
treated  me  like  a  prince.  When  I  called  at  his  home,  I  found 
the  number,  an  old  two-story  long  building,  up  one  flight  of 
stairs.  I  was  shown  into  a  very  pleasant  room.  The  servant 
made  the  mistake  of  taking  my  cards  to  Mrs.  Drude.  She 
is  a  bright-faced  woman  and,  though  she  kept  me  waiting 
to  change  her  dress,  she  welcomed  me  heartily.  I  explained 
my  reason  for  calling,  and  then  she  went  for  her  husband 
who  soon  came.  He  is  associated  with  Prantl  and  Engler 
in  bringing  out  the  botanical  encyclopedia.  He  is  still  quite 
young  and  enthusiastic  over  his  work.  He  has  made  a  special 
study  of  palms  .  .  .  and  has  given  also  much  attention  to 
the  geographical  distribution  of  plants,  and  showed  me  a  map 
of  the  world  which  was  divided  into  floras  of  a  few  districts, 


58  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

which  is  very  convenient  for  general  classification.  Mrs. 
Drude  has  herself  made  some  studies  in  botany,  and  many 
of  the  beautiful  drawings  in  her  husband's  book  were  made 
by  her.  The  collection  in  the  museum  is  excellent,  though 
the  room  is  small.  .  .  . 

"His  idea  of  having  some  of  the  plant's  constituents  ex- 
hibited with  the  plant  was  a  particularly  good  one.  The  plan 
of  the  garden  is  given  in  the  little  guide  which  the  author 
presented.  But  he  will  have  in  his  new  garden  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent arrangement.  He  had  in  front  of  his  palm  trees  a  small 
plot  of  ground  with  one  bed  given  to  each  country  of  the 
world's  flora.  A  little  rise  in  the  garden  was  called  by  Drude 
the  Alps.  We  had  much  amusement  clambering  up  the  little 
wandering  path.  His  rooms  and  library  at  the  Polytechnic 
were  full  of  interest.  The  library  is  particularly  fine. 

"The  books  are  arranged  according  to  the  botany  of  each 
country.  The  collection  seemed  very  complete  and  con- 
tained many  rare  and  costly  works.  There  is  a  set  of  plates, 
painted  by  hand,  of  all  flowers.  Two  former  kings  of  Saxony 
were  great  lovers  of  botany,  and  one  had  ordered  this  book 
to  be  made.  Each  painting  is  absolutely  perfect  of  the  flowers, 
and  on  the  margins  are  paintings  of  the  different  flower 
parts.  The  books  number  ten  volumes  and  were  lined  within 
the  binding  with  pink  satin.  As  the  work  is  in  manuscript, 
it  has  no  other  title  than  '  Plantae  Seleclae.  Centurin.'  Most 
of  the  students  in  the  Polytechnic  are  interested  in  botany  only 
for  its  practical  side,  but  those  who  wish  to  carry  on  investi- 
gations have  the  right  to  the  libraries.  The  herbarium  was 
not  new,  and  under  Drude's  orders  is  undergoing  renovation. 
The  laboratory  was  small  but  fitted  with  all  essential  apparatus. 
An  apparatus  for  measuring  and  recording  the  hourly  growth 
of  a  plant  was  very  delicate.  The  tracings  of  one  plant  showed 
that  the  greatest  growth  occurred  during  the  night,  especially 
between  2  and  4  A.  M.  The  plant  at  night  probably  absorbs 
for  its  growth  what  it  makes  during  the  day.  Outside  of  a 
window  a  glass  case  was  built  with  opening  doors  for  water- 
culture  experiments.  ... 

"Drude  was  simply  lovely.    He  talked  with  me  about  my 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  59 

studies  and  about  my  chemical  idea.  He  said  if  chemistry 
and  morphology  went  hand  in  hand  that  it  would  be  a  great 
thing  to  have  discovered  it,  and  he  seemed  immensely  pleased 
at  the  idea,  saying  that  those  who  favored  chemistry  could 
employ  this  means  for  classification,  etc." 

Miss  Abbott  promised  to  send  Drude  various  specimens 
of  American  plants,  particularly  the  ocotilla  and  other  Mex- 
ican flora  which  she  had  studied,  and  they  parted  on  the 
friendliest  terms. 

From  Dresden  she  went  to  Leipsic.  She  presented  to 
Professor  Johannes  Wislecenus  a  letter  of  introduction  with 
which  she  had  been  provided  by  Professor  Ladenburg.  She 
found  him  "a  large,  tall  man  with  silver-gray  hair."  He  re- 
ceived her  at  once  in  his  study,  and  informed  her  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  offer  her  a  place  in  his  laboratory,  as 
it  was  already  very  much  crowded  with  men-students,  and  it 
was  altogether  against  the  rules  to  admit  women.  She  was 
rather  disgusted  at  the  way  in  which  he  advised  her  to  go  to 
Zurich  :  "the  way  all  women  are  shoved  to  Zurich,"  seemed 
to  her  "  like  the  last  stage  of  investigation  which  only  pushes 
the  problem  of  life  so  far  back  without  removing  the  veil." 
He  told  her  that  it  might  be  possible  for  her  to  attend  the 
lectures,  but  that  that  "depended  entirely  upon  the  wishes  of 
each  professor  and  the  exercise  of  individual  right."  However, 
he  gave  her  a  card  of  introduction  to  Dr.  Ernest  von  Meyer, 
who  he  thought  might  be  willing  to  take  her  into  his  private 
laboratory.  Then  without  offering  to  show  her  his  private 
laboratory,  he  turned  her  over  to  the  tender  mercies  of  an  as- 
sistant who  had  general  charge  of  his  fifty  students,  to  show 
her  around  the  institution.  Professor  Wislecenus,  when  a 
young  man,  had  been  chemical  assistant  at  Yale.  She  was 
impressed  with  "the  great  scale  on  which  the  laboratories 
were  run,"  but  she  found  comparatively  few  new  or  origi- 
nal pieces  of  apparatus;  and  her  experience  led  her  to  the 
conclusion,  that  though  the  accommodation  for  the  training 
of  chemical  graduates  is  immense,  there  was  not  much  chance 
of  obtaining  the  best  education  rapiflly  in  these  large  univer- 
sities. She  says :  — 


60        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

"The  heads,  of  course,  are  such  eminent  men  that  they  are 
too  busily  engaged  in  their  own  researches  to  devote  time  es- 
pecially to  students.  The  latter  are  then  given  to  the  care  of 
an  assistant.  The  assistants  even  show  the  most  minute  ma- 
nipulation, and  it  is  a  quite  easy  matter  to  become  thoroughly 
conversant  with  chemical  technique.  In  lookingt  over  the 
university  calendar  for  each  semester,  one  will  notice  the  many 
different  minor  courses  in  schematic  analysis,  in  spectroscopic 
work,  etc.,  and  each  small  branch  has  its  professor  and  sepa- 
rate lectures.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  obtain  an  immense 
amount  of  facts  quickly." 

She  had  an  interesting  visit  at  the  Botanical  Garden. 

"After  a  trial  in  German  speaking,  I  made  the  servant  un- 
derstand that  I  would  speak  with  Professor  Pfeffer.  He  was 
out,  and  the  servant  could  not  name  the  hour  for  his  return. 
As  I  was  leaving  the  building,  Pfeffer  appeared,  and  I  handed 
him  Drude's  card  of  introduction.  He  welcomed  me  kindly 
and  said  that  the  laboratory  was  not  as  yet  installed.  He 
had  just  come  from  Tubingen,  where  he  said  he  had  left  a 
very  beautiful  Botanical  Institute.  He  hoped  in  about  a  year 
to  have  a  fine  school  here.  He  thought  that  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  have  permission  to  admit  a  lady-student.  He  had 
just  come  to  Leipsic  and  knew  nothing  of  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations. .  .  . 

"  He  thought  that  the  most  difficult  problems  in  plant  phy- 
siology were  the  mechanical  ones  involving  mathematical 
explanation  and  treatment." 

Professor  Ernest  von  Meyer,  to  whom  she  presented  her 
card  of  introduction  from  Wislecenus,  and  Professor  Stroh- 
mann,  an  authority  on  plant-chemistry,  showed  great  interest 
in  her  work,  and  made  her  feel  that  she  might  spend  some 
months  in  Leipsic  with  great  profit,  since  in  addition  there 
were  good  bookstores,  fine  music,  excellent  sources  of  chemical 
supplies,  and  admirable  educational  facilities  including  Pfef- 
fer's  botanical  garden  and  Dr.  Gruber's  chemical  physio- 
logical laboratory.  Her  diary  has  this  interesting  entry :  — 

"  Oct.  20.  Visited  Prof.  Ernest  von  Meyer's  private  labora- 
tory. It  is  a  private  one,  though  Prof.  Meyer  is  one  of  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  61 

professors  at  the  University.  Wislecenus  thought  he  might 
admit  me,  and  Von  Meyer  said  that  if  he  had  sufficient  notice 
in  advance,  he  would  make  a  place  for  me.  He  said  he  only 
took  very  advanced  students,  those  who  were  preparing  their 
dissertation,  or  who  were  pursuing  researches.  The  labora- 
tory is  particularly  a  research  laboratory. 

"The  rooms  are  few  and  small,  but  such  a  place  as  one 
would  be  willing  to  study  in.  He  said  that  Strohmann,  professor 
of  agricultural  chemistry  and  physiology,  was  my  man,  and 
gave  me  a  card  to  him,  which  I  presented  at  once.  Von  Meyer 
is  an  elegant  gentleman,  and  the  writer  of  a  'Handbuch  der 
Chemie,'  —  I  believe  a  new  edition  of  Kolbe,  but  I  am  not  sure 
of  this.  His  reference  library  was  small,  but  contained  the 
best.  I  noticed  very  few,  if  any,  American  publications,  and  it 
just  occurred  to  me  how  inconvenient  it  would  be  not  to  have 
access  to  English  publications  as  well  in  investigation.  This 
is  where  we  have  the  advantage  in  our  libraries,  since  we  buy 
all  the  foreign  and  have  our  own,  too. 

"Strohman  looks  like  an  intelligent  but  more  affable  copy 
of  Von  Biilow,  with  gray  hair,  bright  eye,  and  a  very  penetrat- 
ing glance.  He  spoke  and  understood  English  so  well  that 
I  was  able  to  talk  very  freely  with  him  about  work  and  the  fu- 
ture lines  in  which  to  pursue  my  studies.  He  was  of  the  opin- 
ion that  saponin  and  the  study  of  the  saponin  plants  was  where 
I  ought  to  stop  and  work  up  the  matter  thoroughly. 

"In  regard  to  the  study  of  the  chemistry  of  growing  plants 
in  different  stages,  he  agreed  to  have  anything  planted  and 
started  in  a  plot  of  ground  belonging  to  the  Agricultural 
Station  for  my  investigations.  In  order  to  save  time,  I  should 
have  my  plants  all  ready  to  bring  over,  in  order  that  there 
should  be  no  delay,  and  that  I  should  get  to  work  at  once.  I 
might  have  some  plants  cultivated  at  home  during  this  next 
summer,  and  at  different  stages  of  growth  have  them  taken 
up,  dried,  and  ready  to  study  during  the  winter.  It  seems 
absolutely  necessary  to  concentrate  energies  upon  one  group,  or 
a  limited  number,  for  studying  generally  results  in  accom- 
plishing little.  Strohmann  said  he  would  take  me  into  his  own 
private  laboratory  as  a  special  student.  He  seemed  most  anx- 


62        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

ious  to  have  me  return  and  to  assist  me  with  all  his  ability. 
He  urged  me  to  send  him  my  scientific  papers  very  promptly." 

From  Leipsic  our  eager  pilgrim  hastened  to  Weimar,  with 
which  she  was  favorably  impressed. 

''There  is  an  air  of  homelike  refinement  in  the  homes  and 
streets.  The  town  seems  to  have  been  for  all  time  to  come 
influenced  by  the  wonderful  coterie  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Wie- 
land,  Herder,  and  the  hosts  of  others." 

She  found  it  "a  relief  for  once  not  to  have  any  educational 
institutions  to  visit,"  and  she  gave  herself  up  "to  the  poetry  of 
her  surroundings. 

"The  weather  was  very  uncertain.  Sunshine,  pouring 
rain,  and  hail  alternated  during  the  day.  The  low  hills  that 
surround  Weimar,  the  park  and  delightful  bits  of  old  archi- 
tecture, are  all  fitting  for  the  residence  of  Goethe.  The  venera- 
tion in  which  that  literary  set  was,  and  still  is,  held  is  shown 
by  the  liberal  monuments  raised  to  them. 

"Goethe  and  Schiller,  Wieland  and  Herder  each  have  a 
fine  statue  raised  in  their  honor.  Many  of  the  streets  bear  the 
names  of  these  illustrious  men.  Their  houses  of  residence 
are  shown  and  preserved  as  the  most  precious  relics.  The 
house  of  the  painter  Cranach  is  also  preserved,  and  the  house 
which  Liszt  occupied  during  several  years  is  also  pointed  out. 
Well  may  the  inhabitants  of  this  city  be  proud  of  its  intellect, 
for  the  public  good  which  Goethe  rendered  to  the  people  is 
everywhere  apparent. 

"His  house,  a  fine  roomy  dwelling,  now  belongs  to  the  town. 
It  was  given  by  the  last  member  of  Goethe's  family,  now 
dead.  No  descendant  of  that  wonderful  genius  is  now  living. 
Goethe's  home  is  preserved  very  much  as  it  was.  It  is  now  a 
museum  of  the  scientific  collections  of  minerals,  painting, 
sculpture,  and  of  books  and  engineering  illustrating  so  plainly 
the  wide  culture  of  the  man  and  his  power  of  appreciating  the 
good  in  all  art,  science,  and  literature.  His  workroom  was 
impressive.  Plain,  modern  desk,  bookcases,  cabinets  con- 
taining specimens,  table,  and  chair,  all  stand  as  used  by  him. 
Opening  into  his  study  was  his  bedroom  with  his  bed,  the 
chair  on  which  he  died.  The  table  and  cup,  saucer,  and  medi- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  63 

cine  bottle  last  used.  Each  room  recalled  the  man  so  vividly, 
that  I  expected  each  moment  to  see  him  stand  before  me. 
The  greatest  simplicity  and  refined  taste  were  prevalent. 
The  bedroom  was  very  small  and  devoid  of  lavish  decora- 
tion. Some  of  the  paintings  were  a  trifle  coarse,  but  these 
were  exceptions  to  the  general  tone.  The  reception  room 
held  many  interesting  paintings  and  a  grand  piano  upon 
which  Mendelssohn  played.  I  touched  the  keys.  Portraits 
of  members  of  Goethe's  family,  of  himself,  and  of  his  friends, 
Charlotte  von  Stein  and  Bettina,  adorned  the  walls.  Presents 
from  famous  artists  of  all  objects  were  exhibited,  rare  medals, 
and  rich  golden  objects.  The  handiwork  of  different  mem- 
bers of  his  family  were  still  in  their  accustomed  places.  His 
traveling-bed,  and  so  many  things  mentioned  in  Eckermann's 
conversations,  were  right  before  me,  so  that  any  interest  I  had 
ever  had  in  Goethe  returned  a  thousand  fold. 

"  The  way  through  the  room  to  the  balcony  leading  to  the 
garden  is  as  dear  to  the  art  and  Goethe  lover  as  Gethsemane 
is  to  the  pious  Christian.  To  look  upon  the  garden  where 
Goethe  used  to  walk  and  talk  was  like  a  dream.  The  rain 
was  pouring,  and  as  I  looked  upon  the  very  trees  the  good  man 
had  planted,  I  remembered  the  curious  phenomenon  that 
occurred  during  the  earthquake  of  Lisbon  when  Goethe 
mentioned  at  the  time  that  some  great  terrestrial  convulsion 
was  taking  place  and  still  not  a  leaf  could  be  seen  stirring  in 
quiet  Weimar. 

"  The  Bibliothek  was  formerly  a  residence,  and  the  room 
where  Goethe  danced  as  a  young  man,  when  he  first  came 
to  Weimar,  is  now  the  main  library  room.  Goethe  was  the 
director  of  the  library,  and  began  the  foundation  of  a  museum. 

"  Here  are  collected  heads  of  the  distinguished  men  and 
women  who  once  lived  in  Weimar.  A  colossal  bust  of  Goethe, 
also  Schiller.  Goethe  said  of  the  bust  that  the  forehead  was 
that  of  Mephisto.  A  lovely  head  of  Novalis  held  me  spell- 
bound. I  tried  to  obtain  a  photograph  of  it,  but  could  not. 
The  upper  part  of  the  head  was  very  full,  with  large  eyes,  and 
the  face  tapered  to  a  pointed  chin.  A  portrait  by  Vandyke  of 
himself  was  hung  unframed  against  a  bookcase.  The  Schroder, 


64  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

also  painted  by  herself  from  a  glass,  occupied  a  good  posi- 
tion. Bettina,  as  a  young  girl  and  an  old  woman,  showed  a 
lovely  face  with  pathetic  eyes.  In  age,  the  face  was  sorrow- 
ful. The  library  contains  a  large  number  of  books  and  many 
objects  of  interest:  Goethe's  court  suit;  his  dressing-gown 
(light  blue  Japanese  silk) ;  the  monastic  gown  of  Luther,  etc. 
An  ivory  walking-stick  with  a  snuff-box  in  the  handle,  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  is  preserved  in  an  upper  room.  It  was  in  the 
possession  of  Liszt  and  given  by  him  to  the  Museum.  A  belt  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  is  shown.  Portraits,  miniatures,  collections, 
many  of  them  having  been  collected  by  Goethe  or  relating 
to  him,  give  great  interest  to  the  room.  A  very  original  stair- 
case occupies  the  tower:  sixty- four  steps  cut  from  one  oak 
tree,  arranged  in  a  spiral  around  the  centre  of  the  trunk  which 
has  been  carved  in  a  turritine  manner.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
the  work  of  a  prisoner. 

"The  castle  contains  what  are  called  the  poet's  rooms. 
The  Grand  Dukes  have  collected  pictures  or  other  objects  of 
interest  relating  to  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Herder,  and  frescoes 
on  the  walls  illustrate  scenes  from  the  writings  of  each. 

"To  have  missed  Weimar  would  have  been  indeed  an  im- 
mense loss.  For  all  time  will  my  readings  of  Goethe  recall 
this  visit,  and  the  sights  that  once  influenced  the  poet  will 
come  to  me  and  vivify  each  of  the  poet's  thoughts." 

Leaving  her  colored  maid,  who  was  ill,  at  Weimar,  she  went 
alone  the  hour's  ride  in  a  slow  train  to  Jena  with  its  four  hun- 
dred-year-old university,  famous  as  the  place  of  the  great 
naturalist,  Ernst  Haeckel.  She  was  interested  to  see  "the  men 
along  the  road  at  the  gates  stand  with  their  sticks  in  hand 
in  military  style,"  and  the  "women  trudging  along,  carrying 
immensely  heavy  baskets  on  their  backs."  She  noticed  that 
the  oxen  at  the  plow  were  covered  with  bright-colored  blan- 
kets, but  a  horse  attached  to  a  plow  was  not  protected,  and 
she  explained  the  discrepancy  by  the  supposition  that  "per- 
haps his  actions  are  more  lively  and  he  is  kept  warm."  The 
approach  to  Jena  reminded  her  of  Spain. 

"The  great  antiquity  of  the  town  calls  up  such  an  unusual 
train  of  emotions.  The  high  hills  back  give  a  grandeur  to 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  65 

the  place.    A  few  quaint  towers  outline  the  town  distinctly, 
as  it  nestles  among  soft,  green  trees. 

"It  was  market  day,  and  a  band  played  folk-lore  tunes  from 
a  high  tower.  This  reminded  me  of  the  Moravian  trombone 
playing." 

She  had  no  special  letters  of  introduction,  but,  from  the 
university  directory,  found  who  were  the  professors  of  chem- 
istry and  botany,  and  sent  in  her  card,  together  with  "her 
dear  Smithsonian  letter,"  which  served  her,  as  always,  by  open- 
ing to  her  at  once  all  doors. 

"The  building  where  the  chemical  laboratory  is  situated  was 
originally  a  house,  and  not  designed  for  the  purpose,  but  the 
rooms,  though  small  and  old,  were  more  attractive  to  me  than 
the  larger  and  more  attractive  rooms  of  the  great  laboratory. 
Dr.  Geuther,  the  chemist,  was  an  old  man  who  spoke  some 
English,  and  welcomed  me  so  heartily  that  I  at  once  felt  at 
home.  He  took  me  to  see  his  collection  of  specimens.  All 
are  made  by  himself,  or  students  in  the  laboratory.  .  .  . 

"The  kind  old  chemist  took  me  into  his  auditorium.  The 
benches  were  primitive,  as  were  also  the  appointments,  and  I 
felt  almost  pity  for  him  as  he  apologized  for  his  unattractive 
entourage.  He  doubtlessly  thought  that  I  had  seen  so  much 
grander  rooms  that  I  would  look  down  upon  his.  But  the 
interesting  lecture,  illustrated  by  experiments,  repaid  for  any 
lack  of  show.  .  .  . 

"We  passed  from  room  to  room.  I  found  an  assistant 
working  in  one  of  the  fatty  acids.  I  noticed  such  neatness  in 
the  arrangement  of  apparatus,  cleanliness,  and  all  absence  of 
smut  or  dirt.  They  rarely  have  more  than  one  or  two  opera- 
tions on  hand  at  once,  and  seem  to  concentrate  upon  them 
their  entire  attention.  .  .  . 

"Another  assistant  was  distilling  some  plant  extract.  The 
old  gentleman  shook  my  hand  most  warmly  on  parting,  and 
asked  me  to  visit  him  again,  should  I  ever  return  to  Jena.  He 
was  very  lovely  in  manner  and  most  courteous.  I  have  found 
it  so  often  to  be  the  case,  where  I  have  had  no  letter  of  intro- 
duction, there  I  have  had  the  most  attention  and  kindness 
on  the  part  of  the  professors.  It  may  be  that  the  letters  of 


66        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

introduction  which  I  take  may  prejudice  them  against  me, 
in  some  cases,  because  the  men  may  be  rivals  or  have  bitter 
feelings  against  each  other. 

"Another  interesting  fact  is  this:  that  in  the  small  laborato- 
ries, the  professors  have  been  much  more  affable,  and  would 
give  me  personally  their  time,  whereas  in  the  larger  univer- 
sities, I  should  be  handed  over  to  assistants.  This  is  an  ele- 
ment to  be  remembered  in  case  of  returning  for  study.  The 
selection  of  a  place  where  I  could  have  the  personal  attention 
of  the  director  would  be  eminently  preferable.  The  directors, 
in  many  cases,  are  too  great  men  to  be  easily  and  familiarly 
approached,  and  are  occupied  very  fully  with  their  own 
investigations. 

"Ladies  are  not  admitted  at  Jena,  and  I  could  not  help 
feeling  that  it  was  a  wise  decision  on  the  part  of  the  Minis- 
ter of  Instruction  to  prohibit  it,  since  the  German  students, 
as  a  rule,  are  a  rough,  brutal  set.  Dueling  in  Jena  is  very  com- 
mon, and  the  faces  of  many  of  the  students  were  badly  slashed 
and  showed  the  signs,  too,  in  one  case,  of  a  very  recent  contest. 

"I  drove  from  Geuther's  to  the  Botanical  Gardens  where 
I  had  hoped  to  meet  Detmar.  However,  Professor  Stahl, 
the  associate  professor,  was  in  his  laboratory,  and  after  I  had 
given  a  few  words  of  explanation  for  the  reason  of  my  visit, 
he  at  once  welcomed  me  and  gave  me  an  opportunity  to  talk 
over  the  botanical  ground  of  Europe,  and  spoke  highly  of 
Strohmann  —  my  Leipsic  friend.  The  laboratories  and  lec- 
ture-room were  very  well  lighted.  The  auditorium  was  hung 
with  many  botanical  charts  like  Kny's.  The  alcoholic  speci- 
mens were  very  beautifully  preserved. 

"  Stahl  said  that  up  to  this  time  no  fluid  had  been  found 
which  would  preserve  both  the  specimen  and  its  color.  The 
herbarium  was  not  new.  I  did  not  examine  it.  But  a  very 
novel  and  beautiful  feature  of  the  museum  was  the  imitations 
of  books.  The  front  and  sides  were  of  wood,  and  the  back  was 
the  bark  of  the  same  species  with  its  characteristic  lichens  or 
other  growths.  The  title  of  the  book  above  was  the  Latin  name 
of  the  plant.  The  book  opened  in  half,  and  within  were  con- 
tained the  cover,  seeds,  leaves,  flowers,  or  any  interesting  or 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  67 

instructive  object  in  connection  with  the  plant.  Stahl  did  not 
know  who  had  made  them,  but  he  had  seen  them  nowhere 
else.  The  university  was  established  400  years  ago.  With 
such  a  line  of  ancestry,  the  professors  and  students  may  well 
feel  a  pride  in  their  surroundings. 

"The  botanical  museums  are  far  below  the  zoological  and 
other  collections,  both  in  cases,  arrangements,  and  in  exhibits. 
Willrock's  in  Stockholm  is  far  ahead.  There  would  be  a 
magnificent  opportunity  to  form  a  botanical  museum  that 
might  compare  with  museums  in  other  departments.  There 
seems  to  be  often  a  lack  among  botanists  of  the  virility  that 
influences  zoologists  and  the  other  naturalists.  .  .  . 

"It  occurred  to  me,  from  what  I  had  seen  in  Kny's  labora- 
tory of  injecting  with  colors,  that  flowers  might  be  colored  by 
this  means  before  placing  in  alcohol.  It  might  be  possible  to 
use  insoluble  colors,  or  colors  that  would  not  be  dislodged  from 
the  cells.  I  got  one  very  excellent  idea  from  Stahl.  He  has  a 
large  tin  box,  made  with  double  sides  and  tops  and  back 
containing  water  which  can  be  heated  from  below  with  a  gas- 
jet.  It  is  a  very  large  water-oven.  Above  can  be  inserted  a 
thermometer  to  gauge  the  temperature.  There  are  double 
doors  and  no  means  of  admission  of  light.  In  winter  time, 
by  this  means  plants  are  germinated  very  rapidly.  The  tem- 
perature is  kept  quite  constant. 

"It  is  a  great  invention  and  would  supply  a  need  in  germi- 
nating seeds  for  lecture-illustrations,  etc.,  and  would  also  an- 
swer for  obtaining  plantlets  for  chemical  study.  A  glass  case,  in 
addition  to  this,  which  could  also  be  heated  by  hot  water  from 
underneath,  would  enable  a  student  to  carry  out,  in  his  own 
room,  important  investigations.  This  is  where  my  trip  has  been 
of  such  infinite  service  in  giving  me  an  insight  into  methods 
and  ideas  for  my  own  study  on  a  small  scale.  The  botanical 
gardens  in  connection  with  all  botanical  schools  are  of  great 
importance  to  the  student.  The  hothouses  supply  the  plants 
from  tropical  climates.  sThe- temperate  and  cold  houses  those 
from  other  climes,  and  the  out-door  beds  contain  the  hardy 
plants  and  annuals.".  .  . 

She  learned  that  the  evolutionary  theory  was  not  held  in 


68        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

favor  by  the  Emperor,  who  had  grown  very  pious  in  his  old 
age,  and  that  consequently  the  professors  were  wary  about 
promulgating  it.  Even  the  great  Haeckel  had  been  pretty 
severely  handled  on  account  of  his  advanced  ideas,  and  would 
probably  have  been  called  to  Berlin  had  it  not  been  for  his 
outspoken  defense  of  evolution. 

She  found  time  for  a  hasty  trip  to  the  city  museum,  and  was 
fortunate  enough  to  meet  the  art-director,  with  whom  she 
had  a  pleasant  talk. 

She  left  Weimar  on  the  morning  of  the  23d,  but  for  an  hour 
before  the  train  started,  she  strolled  through  the  old  town,  pass- 
ing by  Herder's  house,  which  she  found  larger  and  more  pleasing 
in  appearance  than  the  one  which  she  the  day  before  had  sup- 
posed to  be  his.  Hearing  the  strains  of  music,  she  hastened 
down  to  an  old  street  with  tumble-down  houses  in  it,  and  was 
surprised  to  find  a  band  of  about  fifty  brass  pieces  playing 
the  Briinhilde  "Sleep  Theme"  from  The  Walkyrie,  and  she 
thought  how  in  America  such  a  concert  would  have  brought 
two  or  three  dollars.  It  was  Sunday  morning,  and  she  noted 
the  children  going  to  Sunday-school  or  church  "two  by 
twos." 

She  found  the  slow,  deliberate  ride  from  Weimar  to  Wiirz- 
burg  very  beautiful,  as  it  passed  through  the  Thuringian 
Mountains,  clothed  in  autumn  coloring,  and  here  and  there 
guarded  by  old  ruined  castles. 

At  Wurzburg  she  presented  a  letter  to  the  famous  Emil 
Fischer,  a  young  man,  with  brown  beard  and  hair,  and  bright 
eyes.  He  at  once  received  her  and  conducted  her  over  the 
laboratory,  and  through  the  students'  rooms,  which  she 
found  "much  more  homelike  and  suggestive  of  comfort  than 
in  the  larger  laboratories."  Dr.  Fischer  showed  her  many 
of  his  preparations,  particularly  the  substance  from  which 
he  had  synthetically  formed  glucose.  She  says :  — 

"Synthetical  chemistry  is  the  specialty  of  the  institute, 
and  it  reigns  in  supreme  power.  I  put  the  usual  question  to 
Professor  Fischer,  —  if  he  would  allow  a  lady-student  to  study 
in  his  laboratory.  He  stated  that  it  was  not  permitted,  but  he 
promised  to  write  and  let  me  know.  He  is  very  agreeable, 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  69 

and  we  spoke  together  in  French,  since  he  spoke  little  English 
and  I  understood  little  German." 

She  had  caught  a  bad  cold,  so  that  in  spending  some  time 
in  seeking  for  a  Russian  bath,  she  missed  seeing  the  Botanical 
Garden,  Museum,  and  Laboratory  which  she  greatly  regretted. 
She  says,  "The  effort  ought  to  have  been  made." 

At  the  quaint  old  city  of  Nuremburg,  in  spite  of  her  sore 
throat  and  chest,  and  the  intensely  disagreeable  weather 
which  greeted  her  with  hail  and  snow,  she  found  great  plea- 
sure in  all  the  curiosities  there  displayed, —  the  Roman  tower, 
the  Castle,  and  the  instruments  of  punishment  used  during 
the  Middle  Ages;  the  fascinating  houses  and  churches.  Some 
of  these  "infernal  means  of  torture,"  with  their  brutal 
humorous  names,  she  depicted  with  her  pencil.  A  sketch  of 
St.  Lawrence's  church  spire  adorns  her  manuscript.  She  was 
amazed  at  the  wretched  taste  displayed  in  restoring  some  of 
the  rooms  in  the  Schloss,  and  their  furnishings  of  "common 
dark  paper  and  mean  furniture,"  but  the  wonderful  views 
across  the  country  delighted  her.  She  spent  some  time  in 
Albrecht  Diirer's  house.  One  little  glimpse  of  the  interior 
which  she  gives  might  have  been  painted  by  Diirer  himself: — 

"An  old  man,  the  janitor's  father,  lives  at  the  top  of  the 
house.  He  is  a  distinguished  glass  painter.  He  is  nearly 
eighty  years  old.  His  room  was  scrupulously  clean  though  very 
simply  furnished.  His  windows  were  adorned  with  bits  of 
painted  glass,  —  copies  from  Albrecht  Diirer's  paintings.  In 
the  corner,  between  the  stove  and  a  window,  were  the  easel, 
stool,  painting  brushes,  the  old  clock  hung  on  the  wall,  a  set 
of  pipes.  The  colors  were  in  a  little  chest  of  drawers.  The  old 
man  must  have  been  a  lover  of  art,  for  a  copy  of  the  Sistine 
Madonna  hung  on  the  wall.  Two  soft,  lovely  cats  kept  the 
old  man  company.  He  had  placed  a  sheet  of  paper  on  a  chair 
for  one  cat,  but  the  other  cat  had  to  be  satisfied  with  a  stool 
before  the  fire." 

She  also  visited  the  old  Rathhaus,  the  courtyard  of  which 
dates  from  1340.  The  building,  with  its  wooden  ceiling  and 
quaint  chandeliers,  and  its  enormous  paintings  by  Diirer,  is 
now  used  for  concerts.  At  the  Church  of  Our  Lady,  a  wed- 


70        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

ding  was  taking  place.  She  was  impressed  by  the  superb 
stained-glass  windows,  especially  the  reddish-violet  color, 
which  she  had  never  seen  except  in  old  Chinese  porcelain. 
She  also  gives  a  rather  elaborate  account  of  some  of  the  curi- 
osities in  the  immense  German  Museum. 

One  of  the  great  treats  of  Nuremburg  was  a  late  afternoon 
visit  to  the  Albrecht  Diirer  restaurant,  so  called  because  the 
great  painter  himself  used  to  go  there  to  drink  his  beer.  She 
notes  that  "the  little,  low  room  has  been  frequented  by  crowned 
heads  and  the  greatest  celebrities  of  Europe."  On  one  of  the 
age-and-smoke-darkened  walls  hung  a  framed  poem  com- 
posed by  Carmen  Silva,  Queen  of  Roumania.  She  was  much 
amused  by  the  sausage  factory  connected  with  the  tavern, 
and  thus  describes  it :  — 

"The  house  is  famous  for  these  as  the  dish  is  made  on  the 
spot.  Two  fat,  live  pigs  were  in  a  clean  pig-pen  in  a  corner  of 
the  little  house,  waiting  to  be  killed.  The  flesh  is  at  once  boiled, 
chopped,  and  made  into  sausage  meat.  This  is  put  into  a 
kind  of  mill  like  a  coffee-mill,  and  comes  out  of  the  pipe  the 
size  of  a  sausage,  and  is  then  pressed  into  the  skins.  Every- 
thing about  the  working  was  so  clean  and  interesting,  that 
the  further  evolution  to  the  kitchen,  and  the  final  sausage 
consumption  followed,  of  course.  The  sausages  were  broiled 
upon  an  iron,  very  close  over  a  coal  fire.  They  were  browned 
almost  immediately.  Cabbage  is  served,  too.  The  little  kitchen 
was  filled  up  with  old  appliances,  and  took  the  visitor  back 
quite  to  olden  times." 

At  Nuremburg  there  seems  to  have  been  no  chemical  at- 
traction, but  in  company  of  a  quaint  old  character,  whom  she 
called  her  "  guide  Napoleon,"  she  visited  the  Industrial  School 
of  which  she  has  this  to  say:  — 

"It  was  very  poor  in  comparison  with  Hamburg.  The 
rooms,  as  well  as  their  inmates,  were  very  dirty.  But  one  of 
the  head  teachers  very  kindly  explained  about  the  school, 
and  lent  me  later  a  book  with  the  drawings  of  the  shape  of  the 
garments  and  descriptions.  The  ages  of  the  pupils  vary  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  years.  The  average  school-term  is  for  ten 
months. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  71 

"The  first  months  are  spent  in  needlework,  the  second 
in  muslin  work,  and  the  last  in  dressmaking.  They  do  little, 
if  any,  art  work,  but  they  hope  to  carry  this  on  later.  Book- 
keeping will  also  be  taught  later.  The  idea  of  this  school  is 
that  it  shall  be  a  continuation  of  the  elementary  ordinary  school, 
for  here  the  studies  taught  in  the  schools  may  be  carried  on 
to  a  more  advanced  stage.  French  and  English  are  taught 
as  well  as  German.  The  school  expenses  are  met  by  the  fees 
paid  by  the  students;  also  the  State  contributes  per  annum 
500  marks.  At  present  the  school  has  four  women-teachers 
and  two  men-teachers.  As  in  Hamburg,  the  candidates  for 
examination  are  examined  by  a  gentleman  appointed  by  the 
State,  and  if  the  candidates  are  successful,  they  may  be  en- 
gaged, by  right  of  their  certificates,  as  teachers  in  the  school. 

"The  teacher,  Miss  Winter,  who  kindly  made  the  copy 
of  the  cutting-book,  studied  in  Munich.  These  schools  do 
great  good,  and  meet  a  certain  demand,  although  I  am  im- 
pressed with  the  thought  that  there  is  a  great  dearth  of  intel- 
lectual stimulus.  The  German  women,  however,  are  trained 
very  equally,  and,  as  I  was  later  told  by  Mrs.  Smith  of  Frei- 
burg, one  observes  less  distinction  among  the  women  than 
in  our  country.  Each  one,  as  far  as  she  goes,  is  taught  very 
thoroughly.  The  higher  studies  are  not  especially  encour- 
aged. It  is  not  the  custom  of  the  country  for  women  to  turn 
their  attention  away  from  domestic  matters,  and  it  is  par- 
ticularly unfashionable  as  well.  .  .  . 

"  The  girls  buy  their  own  materials,  and  what  they  make 
they  keep  for  themselves.  The  principles  are  quite  different 
from  Hamburg  and  Berlin,  where  all  is  done  for  the  public 
and  for  sale." 

From  Nuremburg  she  went  to  Munich,  where  she  arrived 
on  the  evening  of  the  twenty-sixth.  The  weather  was  cold,  and 
the  buildings  were  so  large  that  they  gave  the  city  a  cheer- 
less aspect.  The  next  morning  she  visited  the  new  pictures 
at  the  National  Museum,  which  as  usual  she  criticises  with 
intelligence. 

Unfortunately  her  accounts  of  a  visit  to  Baeyer's  great 
laboratory,  as  well  as  the  Botanical  Institute  under  the  guid- 


HELEN  ABBOTT  TUTrHAFT 


the  University , 


to  go,  with  tins  <fi- 


.:;     i_i  „::::  L  ~  i~ 
,  -to  IULTC  the  <jryBr  €• 
Or  m  is  posablc  to  |wvii^  two  or  thioc 

J       -'1  LL:     .  7_     r7^:       Il._:       1H1    r-r 


thestazt.    This  begins  in 


of  the  Fi 

ilc  described  the 
poor."    He  Ihooghl  that  the 


74        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

genious  way  in  which  the  bears  were  fed.  At  the  astonish- 
ingly fine  Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  mineral  collection 
suggested  to  her  the  advisability  of  studying  the  carbonates 
occurring  in  minerals,  as  including  amorphous  conditions, 
and  determining  if  all  minerals  tending  to  organic  forms  are 
carbonates. 

She  spent  the  afternoon  of  November  i  in  an  excursion 
to  Thun  and  Interlaken.  The  weather  had  cleared  and  the 
Alps  stood  out  most  sharply  defined.  She  says:  "The  wa- 
ter of  Lake  Thun  is  perfectly  clear,  and  the  bottom  can 
be  seen  many  feet  under  water  a  long  distance  from  shore. 
The  old  town  of  Thun  is  perched  most  attractively  on  the 
side  of  a  hill  overlooking  the  lake  and  facing  the  mountains. 
What  more  heavenly  spot  to  select  than  this?  The  grandeur 
of  the  Bernese  Oberland  cannot  be  more  felt  than  under 
these  conditions  under  which  I  saw  them.  The  total  absence 
of  clouds  and  the  soft,  turquoise  blue  sky  recalled  the  land  of 
Italy  beyond,  but  the  intense  cold  recalled  the  many  trage- 
dies which  have  occurred  among  those  heights  of  snow.  It 
was  indeed  the  best  view  I  had  ever  had  of  the  Alps,  and  I 
felt  my  heart  leaving  me  with  the  intense  longing  to  stay  among 
them.  The  autumnal  sun,  of  course,  added  to  the  charm. 
The  pine  trees  were  lightly  touched  with  a  snowy  mantle. 
Many  of  the  rocky  prominences  where  the  pines  grow  scat- 
tered were  also  sprinkled.  It  reminded  me  of  a  grisly-haired 
old  man. 

"As  the  landing  was  approached,  the  Jungfrau  and  her 
companions  rose  in  all  majesty.  The  sky  was  of  the  tenderest 
blue.  At  the  mountains'  base,  this  color  took  on  a  deeper  tone. 
The  snow-fields  interrupted  this  color  symphony,  and  by  con- 
trast added  new  grace  and  beauty  to  the  color  gradation." 

A  short  ride  by  rail  took  her  to  Interlaken,  where  she  was 
fortunate  enough  in  having  a  full  moon.  "As  I  opened  the 
window,  I  believe  I  shall  never  again  see  such  a  sight.  Not  a 
cloud  was  to  be  seen.  The  Jungfrau  was  a  field  of  silver.  The 
red  and  blue  stars  showered  smiles  of  admiration  and  light 
upon  these  snow-mounds." 

The  next  day  she  went  to  Grindelwald,  and  saw  the  moun- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  75 

tains  absolutely  free  from  clouds  or  mist.  She  was  struck  with 
the  beautiful  and  artistic  carvings  on  the  exteriors  of  the 
many  chalets  that  she  saw,  in  contrast  to  the  dirt  and  squalor 
that  prevailed  within,  and  the  pale  and  pinched  faces  of 
women  and  children,  testifying  to  the  poor  food,  hard  work, 
and  miserable  surroundings.  She  learned  that  the  guides  had 
a  hard  time  to  make  both  ends  of  the  year  meet,  the  season 
being  short,  and  their  families  often  large.  She  felt  sorry  for 
the  expressionless  faces  of  the  people  whom  she  saw.  "The 
little  children  look  like  old  people,  as  if  even  at  birth  the  age 
of  the  mountains  had  reflected  itself  upon  them."  She  was 
amused  at  the  absurd  cut  of  their  clothes;  the  men  wearing 
homespun  of  snuff -brown  color.  "Some  of  the  older  men, 
when  dressed  in  their  best,  have  the  tail  of  the  coat  cut  very 
short  like  an  abbreviated  dress-coat.  Their  boots  are  of  the 
clumsiest  make  with  wooden  soles  and  leather  tops.  ...  A 
story  is  told  of  how  one  of  the  mountaineers  thus  dressed  went 
to  camp,  and  the  officer  who  made  the  inspection  to  see  if 
his  uniform  and  boots  were  right,  looked  with  his  one  eyeglass 
at  such  a  pair  of  nailed,  solid  boots  which  the  poor  fellow  had 
brought,  and  asked  him  how  he  could  fight  in  such  boots. 
The  mountaineer  replied,  'Your  boots  are  to  run  in,  mine 
are  to  stand  in.'  With  this  he  stamped  his  foot  on  the  ground, 
and  looked  with  contempt  on  the  thin  shoes  of  the  exquisite." 

At  the  Hotel  de  1'Ours,  at  Grindelwald,  she  was  delighted 
not  only  with  the  homelike  food  and  accommodations,  but 
also  with  the  whole  family  of  the  proprietress,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  lovely,  refined  girl,  speaking  very  good  English, 
and  seven  sons.  One  of  these  sons,  an  alert,  intelligent  youth, 
beaming  all  over  with  the  daring  and  manliness  that  come 
from  an  open-air,  adventurous  life,  had  been  out  chamois 
hunting  in  the  mountains  for  two  days,  and,  more  fortunate 
than  the  famous  Tartarin  of  Tarascon,  had  bagged  one  of 
those  rare  deer.  He  had  spent  the  night  before  camping  out 
in  the  deep  snow,  with  the  cold  so  intense  that  it  had  frozen 
his  bread,  wine,  and  cheese.  She  says:  — 

"He  was  a  Protestant,  and  spoke  of  the  two  Swiss  parties 
being  powerfully  divided  on  religious  grounds,  the  Catholics 


76        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

being  the  conservative  body,  and  the  Protestants  going  in  for 
radical  measures.  The  President  over  all,  is  elected  every 
four  years,  and  may  remain  in  office  indefinitely.  It  occurs 
to  me  that  it  would  be  a  very  interesting  study  to  collect  the 
systems  of  governments  and  parties,  and  methods  of  election 
of  all  countries,  and  publish  in  a  summarized  form.  Such 
information  is  probably  scattered  in  geographies  and  other 
books;  but  in  lieu  of  any  such  publication,  I  believe  it  would 
be  of  general  interest." 

She  gives  an  interesting  account  of  a  Russian  countess  who 
had  been  spending  the  season  at  Grindelwald,  making  all 
the  excursions  of  the  neighborhood:  "She  ascended  the 
Wetterhorn,  and  was  obliged  to  stay  two  days  upon  the  moun- 
tain, for  a  severe  snowstorm  came  up.  The  proprietor  said 
to  look  at  her  when  she  was  dressed  for  the  evening,  one  would 
say  she  could  not  walk  a  mile  —  'not  even  to  the  glacier.' 

"The  day  was  so  clear  that  I  concluded  to  visit  the  upper 
glacier,  and  at  once  engaged  a  guide.  The  horse  had  to  be 
caught  and  saddled.  He  was  pretty  lively  after  his  week's 
rest  since  the  last  tourists  had  been  up  the  valley.  The  shadow 
side  of  the  valley  was  covered  with  a  deep  snow  in  contrast 
with  the  green  hills  where  the  sun  shone.  As  we  approached 
the  glacier,  the  snow  deepened.  I  had  to  leave  the  horse,  and, 
the  guide  leading,  I  waded  through  snow  to  my  knees ;  each 
step  the  guide  tested  before  I  advanced.  I  had  one  fall,  as 
the  ice  under  the  softly  fallen  snow  made  the  walking  very 
unsafe. 

"At  the  glacier,  the  snow  concealed  many  crevasses,  and  it 
was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  entrance  to  the  grotto  was 
found.  At  last  I  entered  and  walked  for  some  distance  along 
the  delicately  blue  tunnel.  The  imprisoned  air-bubbles  as- 
sumed the  most  fantastic  shapes,  and  several  curious  features 
in  the  ice-formations  indicated  that  glaciers  would  offer  a 
fruitful  subject  for  study.  I  believe  that  very  much  is  yet  to 
be  done  to  explain  the  attendant  phenomena. 

"The  proprietor  said  that  twenty- seven  deaths  had  occurred 
this  year  from  mountain  accidents.  The  most  distressing 
was  the  Jungfrau  accident,  when  six  gentlemen  fell  8,000  feet 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  77 

from  the  summit.  They  were  walking  along  what  is  called  a 
cornice,  when  it  broke,  and  they  were  hurled  to  death.  The 
proprietor,  though  accustomed  to  mountaineering,  said  that 
only  the  experienced  and  expert  guides  knew  from  certain 
signs  the  conditions  of  the  ice  and  snow,  and  no  one  should 
ever  undertake  any  excursion  without  a  guide.  These  men 
who  tried  the  Jungfrau  ascent  refused  to  allow  any  guide  to 
accompany  them,  though  several  offered  their  services  free. 
They  made  the  ascent  by  a  new  route,  from  the  Lauterbrunnen 
side  called  the  Rotthal.  .  .  .  Miss  Boss  said  they  were  quite 
in  pieces  when  found,  and  were  brought  down  the  mountain 
in  racks.  Several  other  fatal  accidents  have  occurred  in  the 
same  neighborhood.  The  proprietor  said  that  nothing,  how- 
ever, deterred  an  Englishman  from  making  the  ascent,  though 
a  hundred  had  been  killed  the  same  day. 

"A  party  of  Americans  were  at  'The  Bear'  on  my  return. 
Their  vulgar  talk  and  actions  repelled  me,  and  I  gladly  took 
the  carriage  to  return.  .  .  . 

"It  is  advisable  to  travel  out  of  the  season,  and  the  quiet- 
ness of  the  surroundings  with  the  magnificent  scenery  helped 
to  restore  my  head  to  a  better  state  than  when  I  left  Zurich. 
A  life  near  these  mountains  would  be  the  medicine  for  the 
nerve  wear  and  tear  of  city  anxieties  and  worry.  I  thought 
of  a  home  near  one  of  these  lovely  lakes  where  existence  could 
be  made  absolutely  blissful. 

"At  the  return  to  the  'White  Cross,'  Interlaken,  a  supper 
awaited  me;  then  bed.  From  my  window,  the  moon  poured 
a  flood  of  light  over  the  Jungfrau,  and  the  snowy  chain  and  a 
few  brilliant  stars  looked  like  lamps  before  some  sacred 
shrine." 

On  her  return  to  Berne,  she  had  several  hours  to  wait,  and 
spent  them  on  the  terrace  by  the  old  Cathedral  where  she 
obtained  another  fine  view  of  the  snowy  Alps.  At  a  garden 
dating  from  the  fourteenth  century,  she  bought  a  few  flowers 
of  the  old  gardener,  and  gave  them  to  the  three  pretty  children 
that  were  playing  near  the  water's  edge  at  the  foot  of  the  hill, 
at  the  base  of  the  terrace.  They  "smiled  at  me  and  reminded 
me  of  the  'little  maids  from  school.'" 


78        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

At  Bale  she  slept  at  the  "Three  Kings,"  her  room  over- 
looking the  river.  Her  mood  of  enthusiasm  had  somehow 
changed. 

"It  is  dark  and  unsympathetic.  The  thought  that  this 
river  will  flow  on  undisturbed  by  the  changes  in  the  lives  of 
men  oppressed  me,  so  that  I  gladly  closed  the  curtains  and 
sought  comfort  from  the  candle-light  and  fire.  It  is  very 
strange  to  look  on  scenes  that  once  were  seen  under  different 
circumstances,  and  with  others  who  may  now  be  dead.  It 
was  in  1869,  I  visited  here  with  my  mother.  This  old  river 
with  its  current  and  retarding  whirlpools  reminds  me  of 
Philadelphians,  who  with  their  progress  must  take  it  con- 
servatively like  the  retarding  action  of  the  whirlpool  on  the 
molecules.  What  a  contrast  to  the  sparkling  and  quick  in- 
tellect of  other  localities  —  just  as  marked  as  this  big  Rhine 
is  different  from  the  Alpine  torrent." 

At  Bale  she  felt  "too  tired  and  miserable  to  hunt  up  the 
university  authorities,"  and  so  devoted  herself  to  sight-see- 
ing, though  about  all  that  rewarded  her  was  the  mediaeval 
collection  adjoining  the  Cathedral,  and  here  all  that  she 
deemed  worthy  of  chronicling  was  "two  wooden  statues  of 
a  man  and  a  woman  coquetting  —  a  good  example  illustra- 
ting unrefined  gallantry."  After  a  three  hours'  ride  from  Bale 
to  Freiburg,  she  notes  that  she  "feels  quite  at  home  returning 
to  Germany."  The  next  morning,  which  was  the  fifth  of 
November,  she  went  to  the  chemical  laboratory  of  Professor 
Claus,  who  received  her  amicably  and  himself  conducted  her 
over  the  extensive  rooms  where  there  seemed  to  be  great  ac- 
tivity. "  He  is  a  tall,  wiry  man,  with  blond  mustache  and 
hair.  He  might  be  any  age,  dressed  in  a  gray  felt  gown  faced 
with  green,  and  wearing  a  smoking  cap  on  his  head."  She 
was  pleased  with  the  open  yard  around  which  the  buildings 
ran,  allowing  excellent  ventilation,  and  minimizing  the  dangers 
of  explosion. 

In  the  rooms  adjoining  those  occupied  by  Professor  Claus 
worked  Professor  Baumann,  whom  Lunge  had  told  her  to 
be  sure  to  visit. 

"I  sent  in  my  card  and  very  soon  was  welcomed.    He  is 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  79 

still  a  young  man,  of  full  habit,  with  a  yellow  beard.  He  spoke 
little  English,  and  our  conversation  followed  slowly.  He  begged 
to  be  excused  for  a  moment,  and  then  returned  with  a  gentle- 
man whom  he  introduced  as  Dr.  W.  J.  Smith,  working  in 
his  laboratory.  He  reminded  me  very  much  of  Dr.  Brinton. 
He  is  an  Englishman,  a  physician,  who  has  left  practice  and 
is  occupied  with  investigation  at  present  on  the  changes 
occurring  in  seeds  during  germination.  I  found  him  very 
broad  and  intelligent. 

"He  conducted  me  over  the  rooms,  and  from  him  I  found 
that  Baumann  was  a  wise  and  able  master,  to  be  absolutely 
relied  upon  as  to  his  knowledge  and  power  of  aiding  his  stu- 
dents. I  saw  the  basement-room  where  Dr.  Smith  is  study- 
ing. On  his  table  were  three  dishes  of  glass,  such  as  we  use 
for  crystallizing.  The  bottom  was  covered  with  moistened 
filter  paper,  and  on  it  many  seeds  were  germinating.  He 
covered  these  with  a  glass  plate,  and  a  dark  cover  over 
the  whole  to  exclude  light.  The  seedlings,  as  they  grew 
upon  their  own  resources,  lived  perhaps  three  weeks.  The 
roots  were  of  the  most  dazzling  whiteness,  and  gave  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  finest  tufted  spun-glass.  Dr.  Smith  said  they 
were  studying  a  glucoside  and  later  would  attempt  the  syn- 
thesis of  a  ferment.  He  offered  to  ask  if  I  might  become  a 
private  student  of  Baumann,  and  to  the  astonishment  of  us 
both,  he  said  'Yes.'  He  even  showed  us  the  room  in  which 
I  might  work.  It  was  a  private  room  of  his  assistant. 

"Dr.  Smith  invited  me  to  his  apartment,  and  the  same  even- 
ing Mrs.  Smith  called.  I  was  unfortunately  absent,  having 
gone  to  a  performance  of  The  Huguenots.  It  was  not  of  a  very 
high  order,  but  presented  an  interesting  picture  of  provincial 
life.  The  theatre  and  its  occupants  reminded  me  of  a  great 
family  party.  The  Grand  Duke  and  some  ladies  of  the  party 
were  present,  and  sat  in  one  of  the  upper  stage-boxes.  Upon 
the  Duke's  entrance,  a  crier  proclaimed  in  a  loud  voice  that 
His  Royal  Highness  had  arrived.  Immediately  every  one  rose; 
then  the  orchestra  began  the  overture  of  the  opera.  If  a  fire 
had  started,  every  one  would  surely  have  been  burned,  as  there 
seemed  no  means  of  ready  exit.  After  the  performance,  a 


8o        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

crowd  was  seen  some  distance  down  the  street  before  the 
Duke's  home,  waiting  for  his  carriage  to  drive  up.  It  was  too 
cold  to  stop,  so  I  hastened  back  to  the  hotel.  .  .  . 

"The  cathedral  square  offers  one  of  the  prettiest  sights  to 
be  seen  anywhere  in  Germany.  The  spire  of  the  cathedral 
is  openwork  of  stone  of  a  rich  brown  color;  old  houses  border 
the  open  place,  and  peasants  with  their  Black  Forest  wares 
crowd  all  around  the  space.  The  country  is  quite  hilly  all 
around.  The  people  seem  kindly  and  sympathetic.  One  good 
woman  on  a  side  street  has  a  large  store  of  the  Black  Forest 
ware,  and  she  allowed  me  to  come  into  her  house,  and  see  where 
the  pottery  was  made.  It  is  very  coarse,  but  the  decoration 
and  baking,  as  well  as  the  moulding,  are  done  under  the  roof. 
The  military  band  plays  at  noon,  and  though  I  hired  a  car- 
riage and  waited  through  the  program,  my  ears  were  not 
repaid  for  my  pains.  The  event  of  the  day  was  my  visit  to 
Mrs.  Smith.  .  .  . 

"The  lady  was  intelligent  and  well-read,  and  was  taking 
an  especial  interest  in  woman's  work  generally.  She  said 
that  the  finest  needlework  she  had  ever  seen  was  made  in 
Spain,  and  one  shirt  in  particular  that  had  been  made  for  .the 
examination,  was  the  most  exquisite  sewing  she  had  seen. 
She  spoke  about  the  German  woman's  education,  and  said 
it  had  this  general  advantage,  that  all  were  evenly  educated, 
and  as  far  as  it  went,  this  was  very  well,  for  no  one  noticed  the 
deficiencies  of  the  other,  and  when  one  appeared  with  superior 
attainments,  she  was  in  such  a  minority  as  to  be  forced  to  hold 
herself  in  very  much.  She  talked  about  temperance  and 
other  American  ideas.  The  hour  passed  in  the  most  agreeable 
conversation. 

UA  charming  boy,  their  son,  assisted  in  the  delightful  in- 
terchange of  ideas.  At  the  station,  as  I  was  dragging  a  heavy 
bag,  a  delicate  little  voice  said,  '  Give  me  your  bag,  please.' 
It  was  the  child,  and  a  few  steps  back  were  the  father  and 
mother.  They  waited  until  my  train  started  off  and  wished 
me  good  speed." 

November  seventh  found  her  at  Heidelberg,  renewing  the 
memories  of  a  visit  made  there  six  years  before,  but  she 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  81 

missed  "the  dear  presence  of  former  companions  and  also 
the  warm  summer  sun."  She  had  a  rather  unique  experience 
at  the  chemical  laboratory  presided  over  by  the  famous 
chemist,  Robert  Wilhelm  Bunsen.  She  had  no  letter  to  him, 
but  relying  on  her  previous  fortune,  she  drove  to  his  residence, 
adjoining  his  laboratory,  and  sent  up  her  visiting-card. 

"After  a  wait,  I  was  asked  upstairs  by  Bunsen  himself  to 
his  private  room.  I  explained  that  I  hoped  to  see  his  labora- 
tory, and  I  was  politely  refused.  He  said  that  there  was  a 
law  against  admitting  women  to  the  university.  I  explained 
I  had  not  come  to  study,  but  to  visit.  To  this  he  replied  that 
the  laboratory  rooms  were  now  filled  with  young  men,  but 
if  I  would  wait  until  Sunday  —  seven  days  —  I  could  have  the 
privilege  of  going  through  —  probably.  I  explained  that  I 
was  leaving  Heidelberg  that  day.  This  seemed  in  no  way  to 
shake  him,  and  so  I  departed,  wondering  what  kind  of  young 
men  were  in  his  rooms,  different  from  those  I  had  already 
seen  elsewhere  in  German  laboratories." 

From  Cologne,  where  she  renewed  her  earlier  impression 
of  what  she  calls  the  "monarch  of  cathedrals,"  with  its  mind- 
satisfying  interior,  she  went  to  Bonn,  where  she  was  fortunate 
enough  to  find  all  the  prominent  chemists.  Of  Professor  Fried- 
rich  August  Kekule,  who  had  done  so  much  to  develop  the  theory 
of  carbon- compounds,  she  says:  "He  is  a  very  charming- 
looking  person,  gray- haired  and  bearded.  He  asked  me  why 
in  the  world  I  wanted  to  study  chemistry,  why  I  did  not  do 
something  else!  This  was  a  very  difficult  question  to  answer. 
He  had  had  a  very  poor  experience  with  his  lady-students. 
Two  Russian  ladies  had  applied  and  been  admitted  into  his 
private  laboratory.  One  killed  herself,  by  taking  poison  in- 
tentionally in  his  laboratory.  The  other  lady  was  always  mak- 
ing combustions  and  reading  romances,  so  as  Kekule  said, 
he  never  got  results.  I  may  say  here  that  generally,  in  Ger- 
many, the  right  to  admit  ladies  into  the  professor's  labora- 
tory rests  with  him.  It  is  his  castle,  no  one  has  the  right  to  in- 
quire what  he  does  there,  and  if  the  professor  so  pleases,  he 
can  admit  the  woman- student." 

She  had  a  letter  of  introduction  to  Professor  Rein,  who  pre- 


82        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

sented  her  to  his  wife,  who  spoke  English  with  some  fluency, 
and  as  she  had  a  little  time  to  spare,  he  took  her  to  the  Beer 
House,  where  they  sat  at  the  professors'  table.  It  was  so  called 
because  a  number  of  the  university  instructors,  lawyers,  doc- 
tors, and  scientists  met  there  for  an  hour  or  so  each  evening 
and  discussed  all  sorts  of  subjects,  special  or  general. 

After  a  long,  tedious  ride  to  Paris,  the  weather  being  stormy, 
she  was  ill  for  more  than  a  fortnight,  and  unable  to  "record 
events  in  chronological  order."  Then  she  fell  in  with  "a  dis- 
tinctly artistic  set,"  and  so  did  not  push  forward  her  scientific 
opportunities  as  she  would  have  desired.  But  she  visited  the 
School  of  Pharmacy  and  got  there  some  new  ideas  and  learned 
that  there  were  lectures  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 

She  visited  the  wonderful  picture  collection  of  M.  Theo- 
dore Duret.  Among  them  were  seventeen  Monets,  which  he 
had  bought  some  time  before  when  they  still  brought  small 
prices.  Duret  informed  her  that,  having  his  pictures,  he  wished 
for  no  wife.  He  slept  on  a  low  couch,  which  he  called  his  bed, 
in  order  that  he  might  give  some  turkeys,  by  Monet,  a  good 
position  and  light.  She  noticed  on  his  table  a  new  work  on 
Spinoza,  and  asked  him  if  he  was  an  admirer.  He  seemed 
pleased  to  find  her  enthusiastic.  He  asked  her  if  she  liked 
Wagner,  and  when  she  replied  in  the  affirmative,  he  said 
those  things  all  went  together.  He  then  gave  her  his  book 
and  a  letter  of  introduction  to  Whistler. 

She  was  delighted  with  the  magnificent  collection  of  Japan- 
ese engravings  and  pictures  which  M.  Bing  had  gathered 
together.  She  spent  an  afternoon  and  evening  at  his  house 
looking  over  his  treasures.  She  was  amazed  at  the  immense 
variety  in  Japanese  combs,  many  with  exquisite  crystal  tips. 
She  also  was  fascinated  with  a  "kind  of  jade  green  enamel 
quite  elaborately  ornamented  with  gold  tracings."  At  his 
house,  she  met  M.  Gonze,  the  editor  of  "  Les  Beaux  Arts,"  a 
great  authority  on  Japanese  painting. 

By  the  twenty-second  of  November,  Miss  Abbott  was  in 
London  again,  full  of  zeal  for  her  future  work,  and  making 
arrangements  for  an  ample  supply  of  seeds,  plants,  and  drugs 
which  she  found  she  could  secure  through  Christy.  This 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  83 

learned  importer  informed  her  that  Huxley  believed  that  no  ill 
existed  which  some  drug  could  not  be  found  to  cure.  She  was 
warmly  welcomed  by  the  junior  member  of  Cross  and  Bevan's 
Laboratory,  with  whom  she  "discussed  the  field."  He  gave 
her  some  very  interesting  analyses  and  compounds  and  the 
results  of  his  experiments  with  cellulose,  telling  her  that  each 
plant  had  its  own  kind  of  cellulose,  that  in  the  lower  plants 
being  less  complex  than  in  the  higher.  He  listened  with  plea- 
sure to  her  idea  of  the  chemical  evolution  in  plants. 

One  of  her  most  interesting  experiences  in  London  was  her 
interview  with  Professor,  now  Sir,  William  Crookes. 

"His  house  is  large  and  elegant.  An  open  fireplace  in  his 
library  insured  a  warmth,  and  he  said  to  me  that  he  could  al- 
ways think  better  in  a  warm  room.  Bookcases  lined  the  walls. 
The  chair  before  his  desk  was  wooden,  with  two  depressions 
where  the  thighs  would  come.  The  back  was  toward  the  fire, 
and  the  desk  stood  parallel  to  the  fireplace,  the  side  almost 
against  the  window. 

"He  is  a  curious-looking  man,  gray-bearded,  and  his  hair 
also  shows  signs  of  snow.  His  mustache  was  waxed  out  sev- 
eral inches,  and  this  gave  him  quite  a  unique  look.  He  was 
handsomely  dressed  in  dark  cutaway  coat  and  waistcoat, 
light  trousers,  and  a  brilliant  red  necktie  with  long  ends.  This 
color  seems  to  be,  just  at  present,  the  style,  as  I  saw  later  sev- 
eral of  them  at  the  Royal  Society  meeting.  I  asked  him  to 
show  me  the  photograph  of  his  laboratory  as  I  had  seen  it. 
This  surprised  him  very  much.  He  said, l  You  must  be  a  clair- 
voyant.' I  described  some  of  the  laboratory  to  him,  and  he 
declared  it  was  indeed  like  his  room,  but  as  the  photographs 
were  only  recently  taken,  and  he  had  not  given  them  away,  it 
was  quite  impossible  for  me  to  have  seen  them. 

"We  soon  passed  to  his  laboratory  which  was  adjoining 
the  library.  He  has  in  his  first  room  the  physical  laboratory. 
There  is  a  tool-room,  also  used  for  glass-blowing.  Then  the 
chemical  laboratory.  There  is  an  entry  which  he  can  close 
into  a  dark  room  for  photography.  He  told  me  that  he 
amused  himself  a  great  deal  with  photography,  and  during 
vacations  and  on  trips  he  always  took  his  camera  and 


84        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

brought  back  views.  He  showed  me  quite  a  number  of  recent 
ones. 

"The  physical  laboratory  contains  a  treasure:  in  fact  many  ! 
A  large  stand  on  which  rests  his  spectroscope,  a  most  inge- 
nious yet  simple  arrangement,  where  he  obtains  the  most  ex- 
tended spectra.  The  reading  is  effected  by  an  arc  marked.  This 
is  illuminated  by  the  light  being  carried  along  a  curved  glass 
rod  from  the  gas-burner  to  a  little  looking-glass  which  is  over 
the  figures  and  magnifies  them  perfectly.  I  was  enthusiastic 
over  the  glass  rod.  It  seemed  quite  weird,  and  Crookes  said: 
'  Can  you  not  carry  water  along  a  glass  tube  ?  Then  why  not 
light  along  a  glass  rod  ?  Indeed  I  can  turn  corners  and  carry 
the  light  wherever  I  have  a  mind  to.' " 

Professor  Crookes  showed  her  his  induction-coil,  —  then  the 
largest  in  the  world,  —  and  his  various  tubes,  which  she  greatly 
amused  him  by  calling  "spooky."  He  explained  to  her  how 
he  tested  the  genuineness  of  gems  by  the  use  of  his  little  pocket 
spectroscope, —  "  when  by  direct  vision  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, by  simply  holding  up  the  stone  before  a  window,  the 
most  positive  opinion  may  be  had  as  to  a  stone's  worth."  A 
large  diamond  placed  in  a  tube  and  subjected  to  the  electric 
current  gave  forth  the  most  beautiful  phosphorescence.  Others 
from  South  Africa  gave  a  pale-blue  light,  those  from  India 
being  harder  gave  a  yellowish-green;  others  a  yellow  light. 
One  tube  containing  a  number  of  small  diamonds  of  different 
qualities  "were  beautiful  in  their  play  of  color  when  subjected 
to  the  electricity."  He  showed  her  a  crystal  of  some  lead  salt 
which  remained  phosphorescent  for  some  time  after  the  current 
had  been  turned  off.  It  gave  the  most  brilliant  apple-green 
color.  She  thought  that,  without  exception,  this  exhibition 
was  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  of  her  whole  trip. 
She  spent  three  hours  in  that  "most  wonderful  room."  When 
she  went  away  he  presented  her  with  two  or  three  of  these 
tubes,  one  containing  a  large  ruby. 

She  says:  "I  have  not  begun  to  do  justice  to  my  stay  in 
his  laboratory.  Nothing  could  surpass  his  courtesy,  amia- 
bility, and  humor.  He  took  me  into  his  room  containing  his 
rare  earths.  They  were  kept  in  a  glass  case.  He  had  the  va- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  85 

rious  rare  earths  from  many  sources  of  minerals  and  in  many 
cases  these  were  different  in  color  from  the  earth  source.  I 
thought  what  an  interesting  thing  it  would  be  to  find  out  if  any 
one  of  the  ash-constituents  from  different  plant  sources  would 
present  also  differences.  He  showed  me  the  first  radiometer, 
and  a  series  of  electric  bulb-lights  from  the  smallest  in  the 
world  to  the  usual  size. 

"Mrs.  Crookes  told  the  story.  Professor  Crookes  said  when 
he  discovered  his  radiometer  he  rushed  in  where  Mrs.  Crookes 
was  and  cried,  'It  moves.'  She  answered,  'Six  oysters.'  It 
seems  that  she  was  engaged  in  going  over  the  fishmonger's 
book  and  found  the  account  out  six  oysters.  Crookes  said  he 
could  never  forgive  her  for  this!  This  was  all  amiable.  Mrs. 
Crookes  is  extremely  agreeable  and  bright;  both  she  and  her 
daughter  were  most  hospitable.  I  had  been  invited  in  to  lunch, 
so  we  soon  went  into  the  dining-room.  It  is  on  the  ground 
floor  front  —  a  very  handsomely  furnished  room,  rather  dark, 
but  at  night  illuminated,  as  are  all  the  rooms,  by  electricity. 
A  blessing  was  asked  by  Mrs.  Crookes  before  beginning  the 
meal.  Miss  Alice  Crookes,  Mrs.  Crookes's  mother,  and  a  visitor 
made  up  the  party.  Mrs.  Crookes  regretted  not  knowing  that 
I  would  remain  longer,  for  she  had  gathered  from  my  note 
that  I  should  sail  on  that  day,  and  they  had  no  other  free  time. 
Professor  Crookes  said  he  would  like  to  have  given  me  a  din- 
ner and  to  have  invited  some  of  the  chemists  to  meet  me.  I 
had  expected  to  leave  this  week,  and  so  had  to  endure  the  dis- 
appointment of  missing  this  opportunity.  After  lunch,  we 
went  to  the  drawing-room  and  talked  with  the  ladies.  Crookes 
absented  himself  a  short  time  to  correct  a  proof  but  he  soon 
rejoined  us,  and  we  went  again  to  his  laboratory  and  saw  more 
marvels. 

"It  was  suggested  that  I  should  go  with  him  to  the  Royal 
Society  meeting  in  Burlington  House,  and  be  taken  from  there 
to  Dr.  Armstrong,  whom  I  was  to  meet,  to  go  from  Charing 
Cross  to  his  house,  half  an  hour  out.  Crookes  said  ladies  did 
not  attend,  but  he  proposed  to  take  me;  so  off  we  drove  in  a 
hansom  to  Burlington  House,  chatting  on  the  way  about  many 
subjects,  novels,  art,  etc.  Many  members  had  already  as- 


86        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

sembled  in  the  anteroom.  A  large  table  where  tea,  coffee, 
etc.,  were  served  was  surrounded  by  members.  Crookes  in- 
troduced me  to  McCleod,  Austen,  Frankland,  and  several 
others;  then  we  passed  into  the  meeting-room.  The  papers 
were  principally  on  palaeontology  (Seely).  Professor  Flower 
and  Whittaker  were  present,  and  many  others  whose  names 
I  do  not  remember.  It  was  very  interesting  to  see  the  formal 
manner  in  which  the  meeting  was  carried  on.  At  5.30  we  ad- 
journed to  the  Chemical  Society  rooms,  and  soon  Dr.  Arm- 
strong came,  and  off  we  went  to  the  station." 

She  cites  some  of  Armstrong's  recollections  of  Germany 
and  the  German  chemists  and  ends  her  account  of  that  even- 
ing with  these  characteristic  words :  — 

"I  came  back  to  London  at  10  P.  M.  alone  and  reached 
the  hotel  independently.  What  a  delight  to  be  < free!  Arm- 
strong said  that  abroad  it  was  now  quite  generally  recognized 
that  women  could  go  about  in  the  most  independent  way  and 
still  be  respected." 

She  had  a  long  and  "most  instructive  conversation"  with 
Professor  Holmes,  curator  of  the  museum,  and  lecturer  on 
Materia  Medico,  at  the  Pharmaceutical  Institute,  whom  she 
found  a  man  of  immense  knowledge  of  his  specialty.  He 
showed  her  a  great  variety  of  specimens  of  plants  and  of  chem- 
ical compounds,  many  of  them  having  the  most  delicate  per- 
fumes. She  was  interested  to  learn  that  great  strides  had  re- 
cently been  made  in  determining  the  genus  and  species  of  any 
bark  or  plant  by  its  microscopical  character.  She  questioned 
him  very  closely  on  points  touching  her  own  theory,  but  found 
that  he  had  no  answer  ready;  as  in  the  case  of  others,  "it  is 
so  eminently  a  subject  foreign  to  their  minds  that  they  are  un- 
able to  grasp  the  thought."  He  expounded  to  her  an  inge- 
nious theory  as  the  reason  for  the  sap  mounting  in  the  spring : 
"He  believes  that  the  warmth  of  the  spring  sun  shining  on 
the  trunks  causes  the  vessels  to  expand  and  thus  allow  the  sap 
to  mount.  I  asked  if  the  sap  flowed  more  rapidly  on  sunny 
days  than  at  night  or  on  cloudy  days,  and  he  said  he  believed 
so.  He  had  never  been  able  to  investigate  this  point  and  had 
never  published  his  idea." 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  87 

On  the  twenty-sixth  of  November,  she  presented  a  note  of 
introduction  given  to  her  by  Mr.  Christy  to  Dr.  Murie,  Li- 
brarian of  the  Linnaean  Society.  She  says:  "The  old  man 
placed  every  book  in  the  library  at  my  disposal.  I  spent  nearly 
four  hours  in  taking  notes  and  shall  return  on  Monday.  He 
allowed  me  to  bring  home  with  me  some  books  from  the 
library.  One  is  in  manuscript.  I  think  women  have  every 
opportunity  for  advancement  if  they  will  only  persevere. 
It  will  require  very  little  effort  to  throw  over  the  last  bar- 
riers." 

Professor  Armstrong  had  criticised  Miss  Abbott's  Yucca 
paper  as  showing  evidences  of  hunting  out  methods  and  means 
for  herself,  and  he  discouraged  this  as  a  waste  of  time,  and 
thought  that  she  ought  to  be  near  some  one  who  could  teach 
her  rapidly  the  very  newest  methods,  and  really  help  her  in 
arriving  at  a  successful  termination  of  any  research  work. 
He  thought  that  before  going  to  Germany,  it  would  be  well 
for  her  to  stop  in  England  and  have  a  good  deal  of  personal 
supervision,  since  in  Germany  "one  is  left  to  carry  out  one's 
own  fate  a  good  deal." 

On  her  return  to  America,  she  went  to  Boston,  where  she 
studied  for  a  time  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Arthur 
Michael,  of  Tufts  College,  to  whom  she  was  married  in 
June,  1888.  In  the  summer  of  the  same  year  Professor  and 
Mrs.  Michael  started  on  a  trip  around  the  world. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  we  do  not  possess  even  brief  and  hasty 
notes  of  this  memorable  journey,  which  lasted  about  a  year 
and  a  half.  With  her  keen  powers  of  observation,  her  unusual 
interest  in  art,  science,  and  life,  she  would  have  chronicled 
a  host  of  varied  experiences,  especially  in  Japan  and  in 
India,  where  the  prevailing  phases  of  religious  thought  would 
naturally  appeal  to  her  ever-widening  sympathies. 

In  Japan  she  added  materially  to  her  unique  collection  of 
art  objects,  —  rich  silken  embroideries,  keramics,  and  kake- 
monos, especially  those  portraying  "  the  harmless  necessary 
cat."  She  had  a  host  of  bronze  and  porcelain  effigies  of  her 
favorite  pet  animal,  and  among  her  treasures  was  one  painted 
by  a  Chinese  emperor  hundreds  of  years  ago.  When  she  was  in 


88        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

Egypt,  Brugsch  Bey  presented  her  with  a  graceful  little  bronze 
cat  that  had  been  dug  up  from  a  recently  excavated  tomb. 
On  their  return  to  America,  Professor  Michael  accepted 
the  position  of  Director  of  the  Chemical  Laboratory  of  the 
newly  established  Clark  University  at  Worcester.  He  re- 
signed shortly  afterwards,  and  the  following  year  (1891)  he 
and  Mrs.  Michael  took  up  their  residence  at  Bonchurch,  Isle 
of  Wight,  England,  where  they  equipped  a  private  labora- 
tory and  continued  their  research  work.  After  a  residence  of 
four  years,  they  returned  to  Boston,  Professor  Michael  re- 
suming his  connection  with  Tufts  College. 

For  a  time,  while  living  in  a  charming  home  on  Beacon  Hill 
in  Boston,  Mrs.  Michael  resumed  her  chemical  researches  at 
the  Tufts  College  Laboratory,  but  her  interests  were  becom- 
ing enlisted  in  wider  fields. 

She  was  identified  with  many  public  organizations  in  Bos- 
ton. She  was  an  associate  member  of  the  American  Branch 
of  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research,  the  New  England  Wo- 
man's Club,  the  Walt  Whitman  Fellowship,  of  which  she  was 
at  one  time  secretary,  and  the  Boston  Browning  Society.  She 
was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the  New  Century  Club  of 
Philadelphia  on  its  foundation  in  1887;  she  was  also  an  early 
member  of  the  Twentieth  Century  Club  of  Boston.  She  was 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Boston  Authors'  Club. 

In  November,  1895,  she  read  before  the  Browning  Society 
a  paper  on  The  Conception  of  Truth  among  the  Greeks  and 
in  Browning.  That  same  year  she  read  before  the  Franklin 
Institute  of  Philadelphia,  of  which  she  had  been  elected  a  mem- 
ber, a  "Review  of  Recent  Synthetic  Work  in  the  Class  of  Car- 
bohydrates." She  also  contributed  several  articles  to  "Poet- 
Lore,"  a  valuable  magazine  edited  by  personal  friends  of  hers. 
In  1896,  she  went  abroad  again,  and  there  are  one  or  two 
passages  from  scattered  notes  which  merit  reproduction  as 
showing  how  quick  she  was  to  respond  to  the  beckonings  of 
humanity.  Thus  in  June  she  was  at  Linthal  in  Switzerland. 
She  says :  — 

"On  Sunday,  June  28,  at  the  Linthal  church,  all  the  sing- 
ing societies  from  the  upper  Linthal  villages  assembled  in  a 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  89 

singing  festival.  The  choruses  were  admirably  sung,  notably 
by  the  societies  from  the  village  of  Diesbach;  the  men  tak- 
ing part  were  from  all  the  village  classes.  Their  faces  were 
earnest;  many  looked  intelligent;  but  a  serious  expression 
hardened  by  toil  had  sapped  the  life  of  inspiration.  It  was 
as  if  the  soul's  spontaneity  had  been  crushed  by  labor.  It  was 
an  affecting  sight  to  see  this  number  (400)  from  all  these  lit- 
tle far-away  mountain  villages,  giving  themselves  up  to  the 
influences  of  music.  I  felt  my  heart  going  out  to  humanity 
in  sympathy  and  with  ardor.  The  thought  again  .returned, 
when  all  the  promises  or  creeds  are  found  void,  and  human- 
ity is  left  alone  without  perhaps  even  the  possibility  of  attain- 
ing religion's  ideals,  what  utter  misery  and  despair  1  Cannot 
those  who  have  already  passed  through  religious  and  many 
other  silenced  ideals  do  something  to  lessen  the  anguish  of 
their  poor,  bleeding  hearts  ?  Yes,  it  is  a  noble  ideal  to  do  some- 
thing to  assist  this  coming  pang.  The  inscriptions  on  the  vil- 
lage tomb  tablets,  assuring  the  toilers  on  earth  that  the  poor 
soul  is  safe  in  heaven's  peace,  stand  like  mocking  forms." 

Two  days  later  she  went  up  the  Sernfthal  to  Elms.  She  says : 
" A  beautiful,  clear  day;  drive  romantic;  village  inn  (Elmer's) 
very  clean  and  so  situated  as  to  get  a  good  view  of  Martin's 
Loch  —  a  round  hole  in  the  Tschingelhorner,  through  which 
the  sun  shines  only  twice  a  year  on  the  village  church  spire. 
It  is  a  wild  region,  hemmed  in  by  snow  mountains,  with 
their  saw-edged  rugged  piles  of  stone.  The  spirit  of  the  ter- 
rible landslide  of  1881  hung  around  the  spot.  Under  some 
circumstances,  how  profitable  would  the  spot  and  scenery  have 
proved  for  inspiration,  the  valley  of  approach  passing  through 
Engi  and  Matt,  sombre  at  times,  again  opening  out  to  the 
sunshine,  with  green  fields  spreading  before  the  eyes,  all  in- 
viting to  meditation;  but  alas  —  the  soul-communion  with 
nature  was  disturbed  by  inharmonic  influences.  The  breeze 
blew  strong  from  the  west,  and  brought  messages,  interrupted, 
but  none  the  less  real,  from  those  that  never  fail  to  inspire. 
The  excursion,  from  the  negative  thoughts,  longings  for  more 
complete  companionship,  and  the  reflections  on  the  disaster 
of  '8 1,  was  still  a  profitable  one." 


90        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

About  a  month  later,  she  was  at  Cortena  in  Austria,  and  here 
again  the  scenery  leads  her  thoughts  to  religious  expression: 
"The  view  from  the  Hotel  Faloria  is  wide  and  grand.  The 
evening  lights  give  architectural  reality  to  the  summits.  I 
thought  I  was  looking  upon  an  Indian  rock  city  with  mosques, 
minarets,  and  palaces.  The  red  and  purple  coloring  with 
tawny  yellow  shades  gives  already  a  superb  background  for 
the  play  of  direct  and  reflected  light.  The  groves  of  larch  trees 
remind  me  of  delicate,  fringed  ferns;  the  sunlight  effects  on 
these  limbs,  and  the  vistas  through  the  pendant  branches,  give 
food  for  long  meditation;  the  scene  is  one  of  great  beauty. 
The  rocky,  huge  amphitheatre  surrounding  this  plateau  vies 
with  the  clouds  in  taking  fantastic  forms.  The  air  is  dry  and 
invigorating. 

"  A  feeling  of  absolute  peace  and  calm  pervades  me.  This 
scene  is  a  fitting  cathedral  for  the  services  of  the  real  religion 
of  humanity.  This  calm  completes  existence.  Nothing  more 
is  needed.  Perhaps  nowhere  else  could  such  absolutely  restful 
elements  be  found.  Sweet  pine  air  —  almost  silence,  no  tur- 
bulent streams,  a  long  way  off  a  pale  Nile-green  stream  mur- 
murs—  just  enough  sound  to  give  movement  to  the  scene. 
The  mountains  do  not  oppress  —  all  gayly  colored,  not  over 
9,000  or  10,000  feet  in  height.  They  seem  simply  to  exclude 
too  much  of  the  world." 

After  her  return  to  America  she  contributed  to  a  paper 
published  in  Portland,  Oregon,  a  letter  descriptive  of  her 
experiences  in  the  Austrian  Alps.  It  was  signed  Alfred  Kar- 
son,  the  initials  of  which  pseudonym  she  was  accustomed, 
during  that  year  and  the  next,  to  affix  to  the  poems  which 
she  liked  to  send  to  her  niece  and  one  or  two  friends.  This 
letter  is  sufficiently  interesting  and  characteristic  to  cite  in 
extenso. 

A  PAGE   FROM   A   SUMMER   DIARY 

If  I  were  asked  to  give  of  all  the  impressions  of  the  past 
few  months  spent  abroad  those  which  were  then  and  still  are 
in  memory  the  most  vivid,  they  would  not  be  of  the  streets 
and  sights  of  a  gay  capital,  nor  of  a  much-talked-of  artiste 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  91 

and  a  new  opera,  nor  the  pages  of  any  recent  literary  success, 
nor  yet  a  woodland  scene  of  exquisite  grandeur,  but  they  would 
be  the  impressions  of  the  daily  life  of  a  people  in  remote  valleys 
of  Austria.  This  peasantry  leads  a  life  of  toil  incessant,  un- 
fruitful, and  hopeless,  with  no  other  outlook  beyond  the  life 
their  fathers  led  before  them,  with  no  other  promise  than  the 
promise  held  out  by  the  wide-stretching  arms  of  Rome  to  her 
faithful  children,  in  lieu  of  their  allegiance.  Not  an  unusual 
picture  outside  of  Austria. 

A  people  bound  by  an  iron  band  of  authority,  forged  by 
church  and  state,  from  whose  clasp  there  is  no  escape,  A 
happy  people  withal,  the  discontented  possibly  the  exception; 
but  happy  only  through  an  enforced  ignorance  of  the  truth; 
the  awful  reality  of  their  own  helplessness  and  hopelessness. 
Any  day  the  clisillusion  may  come.  How  unprepared  are 
these  people  for  disclosures !  Can  their  condition  be  imagined 
at  the  awakening? 

A  people  whose  lands  are  taxed  and  mortgaged,  only  the 
strenuous  exertion  of  united  family  labor,  and  that  is  barely 
enough,  to  meet  their  obligations.  The  money  from  this  labor 
goes  for  the  sustainment  and  support  of  the  nobility,  and  the 
leisure  classes.  What  are  their  lives?  Very  little  beyond  a 
round  of  useless  charities,  pleasures,  and  idleness  in  the  cities. 
There  is  no  need  to  enumerate  in  detail.  Their  lives  are  well 
enough  known  to  all.  They  do  not  want  for  bread.  Whilst 
the  blood  of  the  worn,  scantily  fed,  meanly  housed,  poorly 
clothed  workers  is  shed,  literally  drop  by  drop,  for  beings  call- 
ing themselves  human  but  —  in  fact  incarnations  of  aimless- 
ness.  This  contrast,  so  unjust,  so  inhuman,  opposed  to  the 
teachings  of  the  Nazarene  whom  all  in  that  land  profess  to 
revere  —  cannot  be  portrayed  by  words.  The  condition  must 
be  seen  to  be  felt. 

In  conversing  with  men  and  women  belonging  to  the  titled 
classes  in  Austria,  I  gathered  that  the  desire  on  the  part  of 
the  majority  of  these  persons  was  only  an  echo  of  a  common 
feeling  to  discourage  the  education  of  the  poorer  classes  be- 
yond a  very  limited  standard.  Others  went  so  far  as  to  pro- 
nounce all  education  for  these  classes  baneful,  as  leading  to 


92        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

discontent  and  final  rupture  from  the  limits  of  their  narrow 
lives. 

Again,  many  among  the  nobility  are  themselves  simplify- 
ing their  own  lives,  especially  those  faithful  Catholics  who 
may  be  classed  as  holding  socialistic  tendencies,  their  object 
being  to  lessen  the  space  between  the  very  high  and  the  very 
lowly  born.  The  simplicity  of  the  home-life  of  these  titled 
families  of  Austria,  compared  with  the  reckless  extravagance 
of  our  own  property-holding  classes,  would  bring  the  blush 
of  shame  to  the  reflective  American,  who  believes  himself  in- 
ferior to  none.  I  do  not  accept  this  remedy,  good  in  its  intent, 
as  sufficient  to  relieve  this  cancerous  growth  sapping  the  pro- 
gress of  humanity. 

Not  the  architecturally  favored  gem  of  a  Tyrolese  town, 
nor  the  Ampezzo  mountains  with  their  natural  rock- summit 
cities,  all  outlined  as  really  against  a  blank  blue  sky  as  the 
purple  coloring  and  tawny  shades  of  their  steep  and  precipi- 
tous foundations,  nor  yet  the  valley  of  Heiligenblut  with  its 
marvel  of  a  church  overshadowed  by  the  snow-heights  of  the 
Glocknerwand ;  all  of  these,  beautiful,  pure  and  inspiring, 
fail  to  move  the  heart  so  strongly  as  the  scene  of  a  sordidly 
laid  table  for  the  toilers  in  and  about  the  village  inn. 

The  sounds  of  the  evening  Ave  rang  through  the  valley  as 
these  tireless  toilers  assembled  for  their  repast,  a  break  in  the 
monotony  of  their  hours.  The  table  stood  beyond  the  kitchen 
door  in  the  open  air,  in  full  view  of  my  window.  Amidst  this 
wondrous  natural  setting,  these  men  and  women  had  gathered 
to  sup.  One  small  tureen  of  some  meagre  soup,  scarcely  suffi- 
cient to  fill  the  plates  of  the  twelve  or  fourteen  workers  who 
had  come  to  the  table,  comprised  the  menu;  neither  bread, 
drink,  nor  a  second  course  supplemented  the  soup.  I  shall 
never  forget  the  hungry-eyed  glance  of  a  woman,  herself  the 
expression  of  what  her  life  had  b*een,  as  she  looked  into  the 
unreplenished  tureen,  and  then  to  the  tables  in  the  dining- 
room,  at  whose  boards  sat  those  who  scarce  had  known  in  their 
lives  what  hunger  meant. 

I  will  not  detain  you  by  repeating  the  gist  of  many  conver- 
sations with  the  people  that  dwell  in  those  valleys.  Your  sym- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  93 

pathies  would  be  moved  to  hear  of  these  heartbursts,  —  the 
scanty  and  bare  existence,  the  nominal  wages  and  rewards 
of  toil,  the  longing  in  some  hearts  for  a  wider  life,  the  glimpse 
that  some  few  had  that  all  was  not  well  in  the  world,  the  wait- 
ing of  others  for  a  helping  hand  and  leadership  where  alone 
they  would  be  powerless  to  go,  the  refuge  of  others  in  thoughts 
of  a  reunion  through  their  faith  with  loved  ones  now  afar,  who 
have  succumbed,  alas !  after  years  of  anguish.  The  hope  and 
aspiration  of  these  souls,  starving  for  sympathy,  are  engraved 
in  words  on  stones  and  tablets  of  their  dead, — to  those  dead, 
asleep  under  the  guardianship  of  fir-covered  slopes  and  distant 
snows,  whose  step  will  no  longer  resound  within  the  walls  of  the 
green-spired  church,  around  whose  base  their  graves  cluster. 

I  carried  away  with  me  the  sense  of  a  great  oppression,  an 
oppression  the  outcome  and  realization  of  what  the  causes 
of  this  burden  to  my  senses  might  mean.  The  horror  of  these 
sharp  social  contrasts  in  life,  whether  brought  to  us  by 
painter  or  observation,  is  as  great  as  other  horrors  —  in- 
deed greater  —  because  the  source  of  the  misery  besetting 
our  path.  The  errors  of  all  systems  fostering  and  harboring 
such  motives  of  light  and  joy  cannot  be  dismissed  with  a 
careless  thought. 

If  I  have  brought  these  impressions  for  you  to  weigh,  it 
is  with  the  knowledge  that  human  suffering  is  not  peculiar 
to  Europe,  nor  to  any  quarter  of  the  globe;  also  I  know  by 
earnest  effort  a  light  will  arise  to  dispel  from  humanity  these 
shadows. 

A  passage  from  a  letter  written  in  October  of  the  following 
year  deepens  the  impression  of  the  serious  and  increasingly 
religious  trend  of  her  mind.  She  says :  — 

"I  have  returned,  if  I  may  say  'return,'  although  I  do  not 
imply  a  retrogression,  if  the  word  carries  with  it  that  idea,  to 
a  state  of  mind  I  at  one  time  approached;  but,  with  the  ac- 
cumulated wealth  of  experience  and  knowledge,  this  state  is 
not  comparable  with  the  old.  The  present  condition  is  one 
divested  of  all  externality  or  desire  to  give  expression  by  ex- 
ternal forms,  where  before  Church  rites  and  rules  were  the 


94        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

outward  manifestation.  Not  that  the  state  is  one  absolutely 
devoid  of  externality,  inasmuch  as  my  outward  bearing  and 
actions  may  not  be  identical  with  those  of  the  past.  Where 
more  light  shines  the  path  is  necessarily  more  distinct  and  the 
lay  of  the  land  clearer.  But  I  referred  to  '  externalities '  as 
direct  modes  of  expression. 

"The  state  is  a  deep  sense  of  religious  being  and  oneness 
with  the  spirit  of  Buddha,  Christ,  and  the  Prophets.  It  is 
inspirational  with  all  religions,  one  with  all  philosophies, 
cults,  or  creeds.  In  brief:  The  unity  of  the  world  lies  before 
me,  I  am  one  with  all  knowledge  and  experience.  This  sud- 
den opening  of  the  spiritual  founts  has  quenched  all  other 
fires.  My  state  is  beyond  will-power  itself,  which  is  identified 
with  humanized  divinity,  or  God.  I  am  afloat  upon  a  limit- 
less sea  of  refined  spirituality;  my  soul  bathes  in  these  waters; 
I  am  refreshed  and  strengthened;  I  ask  for  nothing  more 
than  this  complete  absorption  with  what  I  understand  by 
God.  It  is  the  highest  mode  of  love. 

"  In  a  degree  you  will  now  understand  why  I  seek  solitude. 
I  need  silence  to  question  this  translation  to  more  ethereal 
spheres  than  I  ever  traversed.  Logic  and  so-called  reason 
here  avail  not.  I  shall  try  to  get  back  to  work  before  long; 
with  this  farther  sight  I  ought  to  obtain  clearer  results  than 
ever.  I  speak  of  the  sudden  opening  of  the  spiritual  founts; 
but  of  course  the  waters  had  been  the  result  of  accumula- 
tions of  stored-up  rays  of  light  from  early  years  to  the  present. 
There  is  nothing  miraculous  in  this. 

"  The  October  balm  caught  in  your  letter  was  not  gone  when 
your  letter  reached  me.  It  pleased  me  to  read  that  you  felt  in 
that  'September  Day,'  the  influence  of  freedom  and  security 
and  a  more  universal  flow  than  you  had  noticed  before  in  my 
writings.  I  felt  the  lines  and  they  meant  a  great  deal  to  me, 
much  more  than  I  could  find  language  to  express." 

The  poem  to  which  she  refers,  entitled  "One  September 
Day/'  depicts  a  walk  at  "high  noon  along  the  turgid  stream." 

"Alone  I  went,  but  by  my  side  were  you, 
Enclasped  in  thought  intent  and  feeling  too. 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  95 

From  looming  crags  straight  hemlocks  skyward  went; 
Along  their  shafts  upcarried  the  eye  sent 
Its  glance  to  plains  of  constant  deepest  blue, 
By  bough  enhanced  and  leaf  of  greenest  hue. 

"On  hilltop  tall  above  a  flowery  field 
There  sat  aloft  the  sylvan  spires  to  shield, 
When  rays  of  sun  ashoot  from  median  sky 
In  throbs  of  heat  restrain  the  bird's  shrill  cry. 
Woodlands  rise  on  and  on,  and  murmuring  sounds 
Of  rush  and  splash  rise  out  from  dense  tree-mounds, 
And  song  of  winds  entranced  around  me  play, 
Whence  life  and  forceful  vigor  crown  the  day.  .  .  . 

"Hush  !  Night  at  last  reigns  over  all  supreme, 
And  sense  and  mind  blend  one  in  trance  or  dream. 
The  mood  of  noon  with  form  of  thine  still  clings, 
Tho  midnight's  note  gives  voice  that  truly  rings 
Of  greater  depths  of  ardor  than  e'er  first 
When  yearning  youth  paused  but  to  quench  its  thirst. 
Then  folded  for  one  brief  respite  by  thee, 
Earth's  feeling,  true  with  thine  eternity ; 
In  thought  like  this  what  care  for  life  or  death, 
What  staying  bond  hath  power  this  force  to  wrest?" 

Not  far  from  the  same  time  she  wrote,  in  a  poem  which  was 
probably  a  sort  of  metrical  letter  to  a  friend,  these  significant 
lines,  pointing  to  this  vital  change  or  deepening  of  her  re- 
ligious consciousness :  — 

"I  stand  imbued 

With  light  laid  up  from  youth's  first  early  store, 
For  hours  of  penitential  act  and  psalm 
May  not  from  faith,  but  intent  fervid  come. 
You  smile  that  penance  such  as  these  trite  ways 
Could  turn  the  spirit  into  wake  of  dawn? 
Yes,  smile  you  may,  for  very  fact  remains, 
Not  prayer,  the  guiding  mind  alert  and  free 
From  doctrines,  litanies,  and  forms  of  Church, 
But  meanings  born  of  stress  and  strain 
Uplead  the  toilsome  path  of  growth's  full  self, 
Where  Science,  Art,  and  all  of  Beauty's  wiles 


96        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

Their  use  do  yield,  but  fail  to  grasp  or  thwart. 
Let 's  stop  awhile  and  rest  in  memory's  chain  ! 
And  then  came  light  of  truth  with  swiftest  dart, 
So  swift  and  sure  it  came  that  all  grew  bright, 
As  night  by  firefly's  torch  or  floating  star. 
And  love  enwove  with  touch  sublime  and  strong, 
Where  freedom's  voice  arose  for  wrongs  of  kind; 
Such  wrongs  are  felt,  scarce  sung  in  rhythmic  line. 
Then  wide  the  world  of  human  form  expands, 
And  tribes  and  nations  to  one  vast  compound 
Of  common  interest  and  impulse  rise, 
Not  bound  by  ties  of  artificial  end. 

I  'd  haste  this  news,  with  greeting,  all  chords  tune, 
And  sound  aloft  'mid  haunts  and  marts  of  men  ! 
'  Comrade,  there  stand  you,  brave,  with  all  man's  poise 
To  breast  the  storm,  to  ride  the  gale  of  life, 
To  bring  new  hopes  to  minds  of  starving  men, 
To  meet,  though  meeting  may  but  parting  prove, 
In  moments  rare  of  sympathetic  hours ; 
To  me  has  come  this  zest,  to  know  again 
Upon  life's  hurried  track  ere  journey's  end 
That  valiant  hearts  untouched  by  dross  or  coin, 
With  ardent  beat  of  pulse  and  throbbing  brain, 
Live  true,  undaunted,  yea,  in  spirit  one 
To  spurn  all  false,  to  scorn  all  gain 
Save  Freedom's  goal  —  though  to  reach  that  were  vain!  " 

In  1897  she  spent  some  weeks  at  Chestnut  Hill,  at  the  resi- 
dence of  her  sister,  and  toward  the  end  of  April  she  wrote  the 
following  descriptive  poem. 

SUNSHINE    ON   THE   DELAWARE. 

A  sun-flashed  wave, 

An  oar's  quick  stroke, 

A  sail  of  whitest  sheen; 

A  cloudless  blue, 

A  freshening  breeze, 

And  banks  aglow  with  spring. 

A  shore  astir  with  'longshoremen 
A-hauling-in  the  seine; 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  97 

A  loiterer  from  the  city's  whirl 
Stands  viewing  scene  and  men. 
A  flowing  tide  with  rushing  flood 
And  lapping  swish  and  swirl, 
A  swinging  barge,  a  fisher's  craft 
Drives  in  with  reef  unfurled. 

Afar,  the  busy  smoke-born  haze, 
Outshoot  from  factory  depths, 
The  ferry,  town,  and  dusky  wharfs 
The  terraced  tower  o'erlooks. 
Afar,  the  haunts  of  toil-worn  forms, 
Afar,  the  shimmering  sea, 
Afar,  speed  thoughts  from  sun-lit  crests  — 
To  thoughts  illumed  by  thee. 

Interesting  also  is  "  A  Fragment, "  which  is  found  in  her  notes 
in  several  variants;  this  is  the  second:  — 

"  I  stood  and  looked  into  the  night  — 
A  fir  tree  sombre  rose  to  sight, 
A  full-limbed  evergreen  tree. 
I  stood  and  looked  beyond  the  night 
Upon  a  distant  star, 
Whose  emerald  light 
Shone  dim  from  heaven's  vault  afar. 
What  thoughts  of  earth  or  sky  hold  you, 
Sole  watchers  of  night's  sleep  — 
Are  life  problems  veiled  to  you 
As  the  night  in  leaden  mist? 
What  know  yon  star  and  tree 
Of  passion,  death,  or  bliss  ? 
What  use  were  science'  teachings 
To  answer  dreams  like  this ! " 

In  a  criticism  occasioned  by  reading  Thomas  Davidson's 
"Prolegomena  to  In  Memoriam"  she  says:  — 

"As  I  look  backward  I  see  the  spark  of  faith  or  religious 
feeling  early  developed  —  perhaps  at  nine  years.  I  can  recall 
hours  spent  in  meditation  and  silent  prayer  at  afternoon  ser- 
vice. This  mood  deepened  until  all  the  joys  from  a  firm  be- 
lief in  Catholic  doctrine  and  practice  were  mine.  At  last  came 


98        HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

a  time  when  knowledge  brought  doubts  of  the  rights  of  Church 
or  of  system  to  hold  back  the  craving  of  the  soul  for  devel- 
opment; for  soul-development,  it  seems  to  me,  may  in  some 
natures  where  the  love  for  knowledge  is  strong,  be  retarded 
by  the  withholding  of  facts  or  the  control  through  Church 
laws  to  the  detriment  of  the  free  action  of  the  individual.  To 
bind  myself  entirely  to  scientific  thought  and  its  teachings, 
to  the  exclusion  of  Literature  and  Art,  brought  me  to  a  solid 
blank  wall,  to  a  full  stop.  This  state  of  being  was  most  un- 
fruitful, as  interest,  through  weak  health,  nagged  in  objec- 
tive studies.  The  veil  of  night  enveloped  me.  A  severe  illness 
at  the  end  of  ten  years  of  soul-suppression  —  the  last  five,  of 
almost  total  repression  —  came,  and  with  it  a  clearing  away 
of  the  mist  and  low  heavy  clouds.  A  curious  vision  brought 
to  my  soul's  eye  the  realization  of  God,  the  Universe,  and  my 
place  in  it.  ...  After  this,  clearer  conception  of  objective 
things  came;  and  the  voice,  though  indistinct  at  first,  that  I 
must  encourage  the  plan  of  declaring  my  individuality  and 
throw  off  the  shackles  of  custom  —  habit,  through  early  educa- 
tion or  conventionality,  holding  me  down — became  clearer." 

In  a  letter  to  the  late  Dr.  Bucke,  one  of  the  literary  executors 
of  Walt  Whitman,  she  seems  to  refer  more  explicitly  to  this 
' '  ecstatic  vision. ' '  She  says :  — 

"  A  long  period  before  last  spring  had  been  a  season  of  what 
might  be  called  spiritual  dryness.  My  spiritual  nature  was  in 
a  condition  of  tension,  from  which  once  liberated  it  sprang 
into  space  with  a  force  likened  to  an  arrow  released  from  a 
taut  bowstring. 

"I  will  mention  here,  subsequent  minor  experiences  have 
been  initiated  in  a  similar  manner;  the  soul  seemed  for  a  time 
before  mute,  as  if  preparing  by  a  recoil  to  dart  forward  with 
greater  velocity.  Returning  to  my  experience  —  I  am  unable 
to  picture,  verbally,  the  exaltation  accompanying  this  libera- 
tion. My  soul  was  moistened  by  a  dew  of  bliss  and  content- 
ment I  had  never  before  felt;  a  happiness  pervaded  my  be- 
ing. I  seemed  to  have  acquired  a  new  strength. 

"I  stood  alone  in  the  Universe,  powerful  to  comprehend 
in  its  entirety  the  whole,  I  knew  my  place  as  a  personality  in 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  99 

this  great  Universe.  I  felt  I  was  one  element  in  a  huge  mosaic 
system.  A  mosaic,  essential  to  the  whole.  For  one  brief  second, 
alas!  too  brief,  I  seemed  to  comprehend  Divinity.  Every- 
where, around,  above  and  below  me,  the  Universe  was  bathed 
in  a  soft,  gray,  pearly  light ;  symbolically  the  Universe  appeared 
as  an  immense  gray  shining  sphere;  smaller  orbs  represented 
personality,  distinct,  yet  a  part  of  the  grand  whole.  A  com- 
posite flower  also  illustrates  the  feeling.  The  centre  of  the 
flower  and  its  numerous  divisions  are  all  separate  flowers;  still 
they  grow,  jointly  contributing  to  the  glory  of  one  unity  —  in 
complexity. 

"With  the  rapidity  of  a  flash  of  light  I  felt  the  reality  of  the 
eternal,  undying,  inner  core  of  personality,  and  of  the  immor- 
tal place  in  the  Universe,  of  self. 

"  Briefly  these  are  the  facts  as  I  have  stated.  The  months 
following  revealed  to  me  the  results  of  the  reconstruction  of 
my  being  dating  from  then.  I  have  never  lost  the  vivid  vitality 
of  the  experience.  The  impressions  of  those  spring  days  are 
easily  recalled;  to  them  I  turn  for  support  and  consolation. 
On  that  March  day  was  forged  the  anchor  of  my  soul;  firmly 
it  grapples  as  it  ever  will  the  infinite  currents  of  the  absolute." 

Apparently  the  same  sense  of  religious  rehabilitation  is  em- 
bodied in  the  following  mystic  poem,  which,  in  spite  of  Emer- 
sonian license  of  rhyme  and  rhythm,  has  decided  merit.  It  is 
entitled  "My  Star." 

"A  star  with  flashing  light  and  power, 
My  soul  a-flaming  woke, 
A  vivid  flare  midst  luring  loom, 
A  burning  stream  my  senses  smote. 

"  This  star  in  radiancy  sublime, 
With  speeding  worlds  was  borne, 
And  shedding  thence  its  varied  light, 
In  waning  left  me  wan  and  lorn. 

"  Oh,  how  I  longed  and  waited 
For  my  star  to  come  again! 
I  scanned  the  azure  heavens, 
Scarce  knowing  if  I  watched  in  vain. 


ioo  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL  ; 

"  Though  other  stars  arose  and  set, 
For  me  they  flashed  no  light, 
I  waited  for  the  emerald  fire, 
The  beacon  of  my  lonesome  night. 

"  The  years  they  passing  came  and  went, 
Fate  weaving  life  and  death, 
With  visions  fair  most  sweet  were  spent 
The  hours,  for  which  alone  I  've  wept. 

"  Then  when  all  hope  seemed  ebbing  fast, 
My  star  arose  again, 
I  saw  it  span  the  jeweled  sky, 
I  knew  that  longing  proved  not  pain. 

"Ah!  then  I  learned  what  light  of  star 
To  me  must  ever  bring : 
A  mystic  throb  of  Nature's  heart, 
The  magic  glow  of  Spring. 

"My  Star"  seems  a  complete  answer  to  one  entitled  "Sep- 
aration," written  the  year  previous,  just  after  Christmas, 
1896:  — 

"  What  grief  is  this  —  that  o'er  my  senses  comes? 
All  tears  are  stilled, 
My  heart's  beat  lulled. 
Oh!  separation  from  all  that  vivifies, 
The  soul's  throb  now  silenced, 
Music's  note  is  mute. 

"  Is  ne'er  comprehension  and  full  expression  to  be  mine  ? 
Oh!  soul,  cease  with  cross-purpose  and  meanings  bewildering, 
With  sentences  fraught  with  half-weighted  words. 
Leave  words,  forward  sense  I 

Seek  in  clasp  of  hand  and  eye-glance  else  denied  thee 
The  shining  forth  of  thy  soul's  true  light, 
And  illumination  extending  to  that  other  soul, .       * 
More  loved  than  thine." 

This  spiritual  awakening  was  accompanied  by  the  gradual 
blossoming  of  a  new  purpose  in  life.  All  these  years  her  mind 
had  been  broadening  and  becoming  more  universal  in  its  in- 
terests, and  yet  she  felt  that  her  early  plan  of  becoming  a  phy- 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  101 

sician  was  the  logical  outcome  of  her  career.  She  had  felt 
naturally  dissatisfied  with  her  incomplete  excursion  into  the 
fascinating  field  of  medicine,  interrupted  as  it  had  been  by  ill 
health,  family  reasons,  and  the  claim  of  chemical  research. 
She  now  began  to  hear  the  renewed  call  to  go  further  into  its 
luring  mysteries. 

Many  honorary  distinctions  had  been  conferred  on  Mrs. 
Michael.  In  1887  she  was  elected  a  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  one  of  the  eight  women  who,  in  more 
than  a  century,  had  received  that  mark  of  high  consideration. 
In  1893  she  became  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Phil- 
adelphia College  of  Pharmacy.  Eight  years  later  she  was 
made  an  honorary  member  in  recognition  of  her  valuable 
scientific  work  in  connection  with  plant  chemistry.  She 
was  also  a  fellow  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences,  of  the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia,  and  of 
the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesellschaft  of  Berlin. 

In  spite  of  serious  ill  health,  which  had  culminated  in  a 
severe  surgical  operation,  which  she  resolutely  and  philoso- 
phically faced  and  bore,  with  no  fear  as  to  its  outcome,  she 
entered  the  Medical  School  of  Tufts  College  in  the  autumn 
of  1900,  and  after  passing  all  of  her  examinations  with  very 
high  marks,  and  winning  the  admiration  of  her  instructors, 
she  was  graduated  with  her  title  of  Doctor  on  the  seventeenth 
of  June,  1903. 

Even  before  she  had  received  her  license  to  practice  she 
had  transformed  a  private  house  into  a  beautifully  arranged 
free  hospital,  which  bore  an  inscription  dedicating  it  to  the 
memory  of  her  Mother,  and,  in  association  with  another  woman 
physician  in  regular  standing,  she  spent  a  good  part  of  her 
spare  time  in  caring  for  the  poor  patients  who  flocked  to  it  for 
advice  and  relief.  With  the  same  sincerity  of  purpose  she  had 
spent  the  summer  of  1902  in  Europe,  and  visited  the  most 
prominent  hospitals  and  clinics  in  London. 

Amid  her  maturing  plans  for  an  ever- widening  activity  she 
was  stricken  with  an  attack  of  the  grippe,  superinduced  by 
too  great  assiduity  in  caring  for  her  poor  patients.  She  her- 


102  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

self  realized  that  her  case  was  very  critical,  and  prepared  for 
the  worst.  After  a  long  and  trying  illness  which  was  vainly 
ameliorated  by  a  summer  spent  in  Dublin,  New  Hampshire, 
she  passed  away  in  Boston  on  the  twenty-ninth  of  Novem- 
ber, 1904.  The  funeral  took  place  in  Philadelphia  on  the  2d 
of  December,  and  she  was  laid  to  rest  in  Laurel  Hill  Ceme- 
tery. At  the  funeral  service,  one  who  had  been  for  some  years 
a  friend  of  her  family  spoke  a  few  heartfelt  words  which  may 
be  echoed  here :  — 

"  We  cannot  help  recalling  the  universality  of  her  personal- 
ity and  its  many-formed  expression,  of  her  wide  sympathies 
and  appreciations.  We  must  realize  that  as,  after  all,  humanity 
is  the  essence  of  religion,  she  was  deeply  religious.  We  must 
mention  the  many  polished  facets  of  her  jewel-like  mind,  and 
how  she  won  distinction  in  music,  languages,  expression, 
both  prose  and  poetic,  in  scientific  research,  and  finally,  even 
in  the  few  months  of  her  active  practice,  in  medicine.  We 
are  certain  that  medicine,  being  both  subjective  and  objective, 
and  bringing  her  into  ever  closer  touch  with  humanity  and  its 
needs,  spiritual  and  physical,  washer  final  and  most  fitting 
expression." 

He  remembered  her  loving  kindness  to  all  who  came  into 
contact  with  her,  in  whatever  capacity,  and  her  respect  for 
their  individuality. 

A  paraphrase  of  her  own  brief  "memorial  paper"  to  the 
memory  of  Dr.  Brinton,  published  in  the  "  Conservator  "  of 
September,  1899,  might  fittingly  characterize  Dr.  Michael's 
relations  to  others :  — 

"  Her  influence  in  stimulating  the  younger  minds  of  her  ac- 
quaintance to  more  active  growth  was  one  of  her  pronounced 
characteristics.  An  hour  spent  in  her  presence  enabled  those 
so  favored  to  carry  away  the  germs  of  many  a  fresh  thought 
and  inspiration.  To  the  few  who  possessed  the  key  to  unlock 
the  inner  storehouse  of  Dr.  Michael's  mentality  was  revealed 
a  treasure-house  of  richness  not  to  be  forgotten." 

These  words  will  be  appreciated  by  the  circle  of  those  who 
used  to  gather  at  her  house  or  elsewhere  and  discuss  every 
imaginable  topic  of  religion,  philosophy,  poetry,  art,  science, 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  103 

politics  in  its  wider  sense.  But  in  all  discussions,  though  she 
always  took  a  foremost  part,  she  was  a  courteous  and  gentle 
opponent  if  ever  she  felt  called  upon  to  combat  any  theory 
or  challenge  any  fact.  She  demanded  freedom  of  thought  and 
utterance  for  herself;  she  was  ready  to  grant  every  one  else 
the  same  privilege.  A  fragment  dated  July  16,  1900,  and  con- 
sisting of  only  three  or  four  paragraphs,  gives,  in  brief,  ex- 
pression to  much  of  her  philosophy  of  life.  She  here  says :  — 

"To  live  is  only  worth  while  in  order  to  build  character. 

"In  the  East,  character  is  called  Karma.  It  is  built  from 
blocks  of  truth.  It  is  only  that  which  lasts  through  eons.  This 
is  the  tower  for  each  to  build. 

"Only  the  strong  are  tried  and  they  alone  can  reach  ever- 
lasting life;  for  in  strength  rests  peace,  solidarity,  unity,  in- 
finity." 

Still  another  phase  is  found  in  the  form  of  a  bit  of  rhythmi- 
cal prose : — 

"The  epilogue  of  Love  is  death. 

"  For  he  who  has  truly  loved  only  finds  fulfillment  in  death. 

"The  quest  of  life  is  love,  its  finding  the  signal  for  death. 

"Love  knows  neither  consciousness  nor  volition.  It  is, 
in  its  fullest  expression,  oblivion;  in  its  fullest  activity,  qui- 
escence." 

But  what  perhaps  strikes  one  most  powerfully  in  studying 
her  life  is  her  passionate  desire  for  independence,  for  com- 
plete liberty  of  thought  and  action.  She  was  an  individualist 
of  the  most  pronounced  type.  She  so  insistently  felt  the 
need  of  unhampered  fields  of  activity  for  women  that  she  may 
sometimes  have  shocked  the  ultra-conservative  in  her  pleas. 
She  could  never  see  the  reason  why  men  should  have  all  the 
prerogatives  and  women  all  the  restrictions.  Instructive  in  this 
connection  is  her  prose  hymn  to  Liberty,  which  was  printed 
in  emphatic  italics  in  the  "  Conservator"  for  April,  1897:  — 

"Freedom  is  the  end  which  revolution  and  revolt  through  truth  have  in 
view.  It  is  a  liberation  from  all  the  chains  which  are  holding  back  the  hu- 
man being  from  greater  expansions  of  mind  and  soul.  By  Freedom  is  meant  a 
state  wherein  all  the  shackles  from  preconceived  ideas  of  the  rights  and  wrongs 
of  a  question  are  cast  aside;  where  the  being  stands  unhampered  to  view 


104  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

each  question  on  its  own  merits,  to  let  each  concept  to  which  the  human 
mind  is  open  work  out  through  a  sequence  to  its  logical  conclusion;  where 
the  individual's  action  need  not  necessarily  be  one  with  the  full  possibili- 
ties of  the  conceptional  outgrowth,  but  where  the  individual  may  partake  of 
equal  actional  with  theoretical  liberty  if  so  he  or  she  desires.  In  Free- 
dom each  being  must  stand  alone  and  the  conduct  of  another  cannot  be  pre- 
scribed by  you  or  by  me.  Freedom  is  also  a  state  wherein  we  are  surely  not 
free  to  give  ourselves  up  to  unbridled  passions,  license,  and  vices.  For  once 
we  have  resigned  our  leadership  into  their  lawless  hands,  we  can  call  our- 
selves free  no  longer;  we  become  enslaved  men  and  women.  Perhaps  the 
man  and  woman  ruled  by  even  the  noblest  themes  lose  in  their  devotion  to 
any  one  absorbing  idea  something  of  the  essence  of  liberty." 

Again,  in  a  few  paragraphs  written  to  a  young  woman  con- 
siderably younger  than  herself,  she  gives  interesting  glimpses 
of  her  individuality.  They  are  extracted  from  several  letters 
but  are  so  characteristic  that  they  find  an  appropriate  place 
here.  She  says  in  a  letter  written  in  1896 :  — 

"I  have  been  speaking  on  several  occasions  these  past  eight 
days,  —  for  the  time  being  I  have  seemed  to  run  into  these 
public  utterances.  .  .  .  Don't  make  any  resolutions  of  what 
you  will  or  will  not  do  during  the  coming  winter.  As  you  grow 
older  you  will  find  your  place  in  the  great  world  of  thought, 
art,  or  action.  Keep  yourself  free,  until  at  least  your  thirtieth 
year,  from  matrimony.  You  want  these  intervening  years  to 
fill  your  being  with  knowledge  which  may  later  in  your  life 
bring  fruition. 

"  Above  all  accept  some  idea  as  your  ideal.  I  have  found 
mine  in  the  theme  of  'freedom'  and  'liberty.'  You  must  find 
yours  in  what  most  appeals  to  you.  But  remember  that  all 
thoughts  of  temporizing,  or  reform  or  philanthropy  —  good 
enough  as  expedients — are  not  good  enough  as  an  ideal  ulti- 
mate aim.  .  .  .  But  look  to  literature  as  one  of  the  best  means 
of  expressing  yourself.  .  .  .  The  topics  gold  and  silver  are 
interesting  enough,  but  there  is  a  vast  power  at  work  now  in 
the  world  at  destruction  of  all  old  systems  of  economics  and 
other  social  ones.  .  .  .  You  will  listen  to  all  these  arguments 
and  form  your  own  opinions.  Opinions,  I  need  not  say,  are 
always  alive  and  changing.  .  .  . 


BIOGRAPHICAL   SKETCH  105 

"In  reply  to  what  you  need,  I  can  give  you  this  from  my 
own  experience, — that  life  is  only  bearable  when  lived  de- 
pending  upon  one's  own  resources  for  passing  the  time,  and 
upon  the  few  spiritually  congenial  persons  with  whom  I 
have  formed  lasting  friendships.  Your  literary  tastes  above 
all  means  cultivate;  and  write,  and  write,  and  write,  no  mat- 
ter how  poorly  it  reads.  You  will  be  improving  your  powers  of 
expression;  also  seek  to  employ  new  words  to  increase  your 
vocabulary.  Literature  is  worth  living  for  when  made  a  means 
to  give  expression  to  the  development  of  the  writer's  char- 
acter and  soul.  As  mere  ornamentation,  or  to  pander  to  the 
conventionalisms  of  the  day,  literature,  as  a  life,  is  very  un- 
satisfactory when  devoted  to  such  false  ends. 

"  You  may  rest  assured  that  even  if  you  do  not  find  congenial 
sympathy  for  your  tastes  and  occupations,  that  is  no  reason 
to  feel  discouraged  over  their  pursuit. 

*  Loving !  what  claim  to  love  has  work  of  mine  ?  .  .  . 
I  looked  beyond  the  world  for  truth  and  beauty : 
Sought,  found,  and  did  my  duty.' 

You  know  the  poet?   No  need  to  say  who  said  these  words. 

"  I  have  found  some  beautiful  passages  in  Walt  Whitman's 
prose  volume  to  read  you.  ...  I  feel  as  if  I  had  lost  all 
my  thoughts  and,  until  this  indigestion  stops,  I  feel  I  shall  be 
unable  to  think.  I  have  not  read  lately;  to  pass  the  time  I 
mended  some  stockings  for  want  of  something  else  to  do.  I 
read  what  George  Sand  said  on  this  subject  only  a  few  days 
ago:  ' Sewing  is  the  work  of  female  captivity.'  I  had  come 
to  the  same  conclusion  before  reading  the  passage  —  when 
my  mind  was  too  weak  for  anything  else,  I  took  to  sew- 
ing, and  I  think  this  the  state  of  the  great  mass  of  female 
minds." 

In  spite  of  her  intense  love  of  independence  and  her  ad- 
vanced thought  Mrs.  Michael  was  always  essentially  and 
delightfully  feminine.  Her  love  for  nature  and  all  beautiful 
things  found  expression  in  many  of  her  essays  in  verse,  nota- 
bly in  a  little  prose  poem  which  describes  a  field  bounded  by 
"stately  groves  of  trees."  It  thus  concludes:  — 


io6  HELEN  ABBOTT  MICHAEL 

"A  cedar  for  many  a  year  had  stood  along  this  path  which 
tallied  with  the  course  of  my  vision  across  the  enclosure. 

"The  moon  shone  clear  through  leafy  fringes  of  chestnut 
limbs. 

"Hopefully,  I  waited  for  some  whispered  message  from 
Nature,  to  be  transmitted  to  my  ear. 

"No  sound,  a  blank  echoed  in  my  soul, 

"  Only  when  I  turned  and  looked  upon  a  face  I  loved,  framed 
as  square  in  miniature  as  these  trees,  then  a  flood  of  gladness 
suffused  my  soul.  That  image  stood  for  more  than  tree,  —  to 
me  it  meant  a  sentient  thing." 

Still  another,  in  the  free  form  which  she  liked  so  much,  has 
a  mystic  pensiveness  and  pathos  and  a  remarkable  weirdness 
of  imagery.  It  is  entitled  "  Full  Moon." 

The  Moon  shone  bright  and  cold, 
The  Moon's  bright  course  had  run, 
And  o'er  the  rim  of  yon  dark  hill 
Had  spilt  in  flood  ^of  light 
Her  orb's  excess. 

Hot  the  earth;   Nature  pants  for  breath, 

Looking  upward  to  this  bounteous  guest 

Who  spills  thus  her  treasure-cup's  need, 

Drinks  feverishly,  lapping  with  Summer's  parched  tongue 

Of  her  cool  rays, 

Delusive  draught,  not  life-giving, 

Bringing  no  living  repose  or  rest. 

All  leaf  or  tracery  of  limb  and  trunk  was  lost, 

Was  lost  in  the  transforming  flood. 

The  willows  wept  hot  tears  of  living  green; 

For,  under  branch  and  bough  sprung  one  grand  arch, 

And  from  it  hung  in  showers  of  stone, 

Not  as  before,  streams  of  living  leaves, 

But  heavy  pendants  unmoved  by  breeze;  the  very  air  was  fixt. 

My  fancy's  flight  carried  me  to  such  a  sight 

I  once  had  seen,  far  under  earth's  surface, 

Where  drop  by  drop  water  rich  in  saline  substance 

Had  done  for  that  place  what  moonlight  did  for  this  tree. 

The  moon  shone  bright  and  cold, 
Cold,  cold,  its  light  did  enter  my  soul, 


BIOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  107 

My  soul  did  fold, 

And  froze  each  heart's  drop  to  ice, 

Drop  by  drop 

That  heart  was  changed  to  one  great  stalactite. 

Thoughts  for  words  too  deep, 

Eyes  too  dim  to  weep, 

Heart  too  sad  to  break  — 

Yet  in  breaking  only  will  come  rest! 

It  was,  after  all,  the  demand  of  her  nature  to  give  and  to  share 
affection.  This  is  shown  in  a  brief  sentence  in  one  of  her  note- 
books, where  she  says:  "Especial  kindness  and  sympathy  on 
the  part  of  my  family  and  friends.  I  have  never  known  of 
such  evidences  of  affection." 

She  was  deeply  interested  in  Philosophy;  her  reading  of 
Lotze  and  Rosmini,  of  Ferrier  and  Maurice,  of  Spinoza  and 
Hegel  was  wide  and  thorough.  She  was  always  ready  to  dis- 
cuss the  deepest  questions,  and  a  sympathetic  interlocutor 
always  caused  her  mind  to  work  with  lucid  activity.  She  was 
equally  fond  of  poetry,  especially  of  Browning  and  Whitman, 
but  also  of  Dante  and  Shelley — such  was  her  breadth  of 
range. 

It  seems  one  of  the  strange  and  inexplicable  measures  of 
the  Power  that  rules  this  world  that  such  a  woman,  just  on  the 
threshold  of  a  most  beneficent  activity,  where  her  work  would 
have  been  of  inestimable  value,  should  be  snatched  away. 
One  cannot  call  her  life  wasted,  for  what  she  had  already 
accomplished  must  forever  be  an  inspiration  to  all  who  knew 
her  or  knew  what  she  had  done  and  was  doing.  Her  utterances 
in  behalf  of  freedom  for  woman,  her  union  of  many  accom- 
plishments with  a  strict  scientific  spirit,  her  pioneer  work  in 
securing  for  her  sex  many  advantages  which,  had  it  not  been 
for  her,  might  have  been  much  longer  delayed,  her  sweetness 
of  disposition  and  charm  of  personality,  make  her  life  a  power 
that  will  never  cease  to  be  felt  in  the  world. 

NATHAN  HASKELL  DOLE. 


STUDIES  IN  PLANT  AND  ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

WITH  AN   INTRODUCTION   BY  DR.  H.  W.  WILEY,  CHIEF 

OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  CHEMISTRY,  UNITED  STATES 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  work  of  Miss  Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott  is  prominent  in 
the  annals  of  American  chemistry.  She  was  among  the  very 
first  investigators  of  this  country  who  began  in  a  systematic 
way  to  study  the  relations  of  chemical  composition  to  species 
of  plants  and  to  plant  growth. 

The  work  which  she  did  is  the  more  remarkable  when  it 
is  considered  that  it  was  mostly  finished  before  the  modern 
science  of  physical  chemistry  was  placed  upon  its  present  firm 
foundation.  In  those  days  it  was  not  acknowledged  by  all, 
and  was  recognized  by  few,  that  chemistry  was  the  basic  sci- 
ence of  all  forms  of  life.  Investigators  had  not  realized  that 
the  so-called  vital  processes  were  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
chemical  reactions  of  greater  or  less  complexity.  With  our 
present  understanding  of  the  domain  of  physical  chemistry,  it 
seems  strange  that  the  studies  which  Miss  Abbott  really  inau- 
gurated on  this  subject  had  not  been  begun  at  an  earlier  period. 
This  delay,  however,  detracts  nothing  from  the  credit  due 
her  in  being  a  pioneer  in  the  work. 

The  most  important  result  of  her  investigations  pointed 
out  in  a  clear  way  the  regular  existence  of  certain  classes  of 
chemical  bodies  in  certain  species  of  plants.  The  results  of 
her  investigations  were  to  point  out  the  existence  as  a  predom- 
inant factor  of  some  one  substance,  or  of  associated  compounds, 
in  classes  of  plants  related  by  certain  evolutionary  common 
features.  The  fact  that  occasional  bodies  of  the  same  kind 
are  found  in  the  most  widely  separated  species  and  genera 
is  no  indication  of  the  futility  of  such  an  investigation. 

Miss  Abbott  studied  particularly  the  occurrence  and  rela- 
tion of  glucosides  in  plants,  and  especially  the  remarkable 
similarity  in  composition  in  certain  plants  related  as  above 
mentioned.  She  established  the  fact  l  that  the  "  Glucosides 

1  See  paper  on  "  Comparative  Chemistry  of  Higher  and  Lower  Plants." 


ii2        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

are  more  especially  the  compounds  of  the  middle  plane  of 
plant  development,  and  are  found  in  the  higher  monocotyle- 
dons of  this  stage,  in  the  lower  and  some  of  the  higher  dicoty- 
ledons, and  less  frequently  in  the  highest  of  all  plants."  Her 
work  in  tracing  the  process  of  development  of  glucosides  was 
of  the  highest  possible  character,  as  well  as  of  scientific  in- 
terest. 

She  discovered,  among  other  things,  that  saponin  is  a  gluco- 
side  which  serves  to  unite  all  of  what  are  known  as  the  "  saponin 
groups,"  and  these  facts  were  brought  out  most  strikingly 
in  her  paper  on  "The  Chemical  Basis  of  Plant  Forms." 
Even  in  the  constituents  of  plants  which  are  almost  universal, 
it  is  found  that  they  grow  in  greater  or  less  quantities  accord- 
ing to  the  evolutionary  stage  of  the  plant.  For  instance,  she 
pointed  out,  I  believe,  the  first  of  all  chemists,  that  although 
alkaloids  are  very  widely  distributed,  they  are  not  found  in 
the  very  lowest  nor  the  very  highest  forms  of  life.  They  do, 
however,  occur  sometimes  in  fungi. 

She  again  pointed  out  the  fact  that  one  class  of  bodies  was 
very  apt  to  occur  with  another  and  to  lead  up  in  the  develop- 
ment of  one  species  of  plants  to  another.  Thus,  the  tannins 
and  sugars  are  apt  to  be  co-related,  and  coumarin,  which  is 
the  odorous  principle  of  the  tonka-bean,  is  found  only  in  plants 
containing  oils.  In  her  work  in  this  direction  Miss  Abbott 
bound  together  more  intimately  than  ever  before  the  corre- 
lated sciences  of  chemistry  and  botany.  In  fact,  as  we  view 
her  work,  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  botany,  even 
in  its  morphological  aspects,  is  more  nearly  a  chemical  sci- 
ence than  has  ever  been  supposed.  For  instance,  if  we  con- 
sider, as  we  must  in  such  investigations,  the  physiology  of  plant 
growth  or  what  is  known  as  economic  botany,  we  find  it  im- 
possible to  separate  the  two  sciences.  No  one  can  study  plant 
physiology  except  from  the  chemical  standpoint,  and  econo- 
mic botany  involves  the  application  of  the  principles  of  chem- 
ical technology  at  almost  every  step. 

The  good  of  such  investigations  is  apparent.  It  helps  to 
bring  together  branches  of  science  which  sometimes,  with- 
out such  a  bond,  would  tend  to  become  antagonistic. 


INTRODUCTION  113 

I  recall  one  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  the  data 
collected  in  the  chemical  work  which  Miss  Abbott  accom- 
plished in  the  arrangement  of  series  of  plants  to  illustrate  the 
development  of  certain  particular  compounds  by  genera  and 
species,  and  this  arrangement  of  genera  and  species  showed 
in  a  most  marked  manner  the  development  of  the  chemical 
compounds  forming  important  constituents  of  the  plants  ex- 
hibited. 

The  study  of  the  principles  of  evolution  during  the  last 
fifty  years  has  shown  the  dominating  influence  of  environment 
on  the  development  of  animals  and  plants.  The  investiga- 
tions conducted  by  Miss  Abbott  also  show  the  dominating 
influence  of  environment  upon  the  particular  composition 
of  the  plant.  Thus  were  laid  the  first  stones  of  the  foun- 
dation on  which  the  important  study  of  securing  variations 
in  plants  which  change  their  environment  is  based.  In  the 
careful  breeding  of  plants  there  are  two  important  things 
which  are  to  be  kept  in  view.  First,  the  development  of  new 
forms  or  kinds  of  plants;  and  second,  the  development  of  a 
more  abundant  content  of  valuable  constituents  of  plants  and 
the  elimination  of  the  undesirable  constituents.  All  of  these 
ideas  were  outlined  in  Miss  Abbott's  work,  and  from  the 
starting-point  of  these  investigations  most  of  the  more  im- 
portant contributions  to  plant  chemistry  in  this  country  in 
relation  to  environment  have  been  made. 

H.  W.  WILEY. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  October  ist,  1906. 


SOME   OBSERVATIONS   ON  THE  NUTRITIVE 
VALUE  OF  CONDIMENTS1 

THE  prevailing  opinion  respecting  the  substances  known 
as  condiments  is  that  they  possess  essentially  stimulating 
qualities,  rendering  them  peculiarly  fitted  for  inducing,  by 
reflex  action,  the  secretion  of  the  alimentary  juices.  Letheby 
gives,  as  the  functions  of  condiments,  such  as  pepper,  mus- 
tard, spices,  pot-herbs,  etc.,  that  besides  their  stimulating 
properties,  they  give  flavor  to  food;  and  by  them  indifferent 
food  is  made  palatable,  and  its  digestion  accelerated.  He 
enumerates  as  aids  to  digestion :  proper  selection  of  food,  ac- 
cording to  taste  of  the  individual;  proper  treatment  of  it  as 
regards  cooking  ;  and  proper  variation  of  it,  both  as  to  its 
nature  and  its  treatment. 

While  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  entirely  satisfactory  defini- 
tion as  to  what  constitutes  food,  the  following  extracts  from 
standard  works  will  serve  as  guides.  L.  Hermann  in  his 
"  Elements  of  Human  Physiology/'  translated  by  Gamgee, 
published  in  1883,  says  :  "The  compound  must  be  fit  for 
absorption  into  the  blood  or  chyle,  either  directly  or  after 
preparation  by  the  processes  of  digestion,  i.  e.,  it  must  be 
digestible.  It  must  replace  directly  some  inorganic  or  organic 
constituent  of  the  body;  or  it  must  undergo  conversion  into 
such  a  constituent  while  in  the  body;  or  it  must  serve  as  an 
ingredient  in  the  construction  of  such  a  constituent."  He  fur- 
ther says  that  water,  chlorides,  and  phosphates  are  the  most 
indispensable  articles  of  diet.  Watts2  states  that  "whatever 
is  commonly  absorbed  in  a  state  of  health  is,  perhaps,  the  best, 
or  rather  the  truest,  definition  of  food." 

Chemical  analysis  shows  that  the  most  important  and  widely 
applicable  foods  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 

1  Originally  printed  in  The  Polydinic,  Philadelphia,  1883. 

2  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  vol.  iv,  pp.  147,  148. 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE   OF   CONDIMENTS      115 

and  mineral  matter,  the  latter  containing  phosphates  and 
chlorides.  Other  things  being  equal,  it  may  be  considered 
that  the  comparative  nutrient  value  of  two  articles  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amounts  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  phosphoric 
acid  they  contain. 

"The  food  of  man  also  contains  certain  substances  known 
under  the  name  of  condiments.  Since  these  bodies  perform 
their  functions  outside  the  real  body,  though  within  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  they  have  no  better  reason  to  be  considered 
as  food  than  has  hunger,  optimum  condimentum"  1  Such  is 
the  positively  expressed  opinion  of  Foster,  the  author  of  the 
article  on  Nutrition,  in  Watts's  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry." 
With  a  view  of  determining  how  far  the  common  condiments 
deserve  this  summary  dismissal,  a  number  of  analyses  have 
been  made  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic. 
My  examinations  were  especially  directed  to  the  mineral 
matter,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen.  The  following  table 
shows  the  result  of  the  analyses :  — 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

of  Ash. 

of  P205. 

of  Ash. 

of  P205. 

Fennel          9.00 

.103 

Allspice               5.54 

.017 

Marjoram     8.84 

.050 

Mustard              3.90 

•134 

Peppermint  8.80 

.016 

Black  Pepper      3.60 

.on 

Thyme           8.34 

.122 

Jamaica  Ginger  3.16 

.052 

Poppy            7.74 

.024 

Cinnamon           3.02 

.009 

Sage              7.58 

•033 

Mace                  2.44 

.230 

Caraway        7.08 

.118 

Nutmeg               2.24 

.092 

Spearmint     7.06 

.017 

Celery                  1.29 

.082 

Coriander     6.10 

.097 

White  Pepper     1.16 

.017 

Cloves           5.84 

.563 

Aniseed               1.05 

•113 

The  articles  were  examined  in  the  condition  in  which  they 
were  obtained  in  the  market,  without  any  preliminary  drying, 
selecting,  or  preparation.  The  ash  was  obtained  by  burning 
in  a  platinum  crucible,  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  possible, 
dissolving  in  hydrochloric  acid  the  phosphoric  acid  separated 

1  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  vol.  iv,  p.  149. 


n6       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

as  ammonium  molybdo-phosphate,  and  determined  in  the 
usual  manner. 

Qualitative  tests  made  for  nitrogen  indicated  its  presence 
in  each  one  of  the  condiments  examined. 

It  is  of  importance  to  observe  that  the  majority  of  these 
condiments  are  fruits,  ripe,  or  nearly  so.  The  seed  appro- 
priates to  itself  the  nitrogen  and  the  greatest  nutritive  proper- 
ties for  the  development  of  the  future  plant.  All  nutritive 
substances  fall  into  two  classes;  the  one  serves  for  the  repair 
of  the  unoxidizable  constituents  of  the  body,  the  other  is  des- 
tined to  replace  the  oxidizable.  Condiments  fulfill  both  of 
these  requirements,  as  is  shown  by  a  study  of  their  composi- 
tion; the  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  are  taken  up  by  the 
tissues,  as  from  other  substances  used  in  diet.  Some  articles 
affect  the  character  of  the  excretions;  this  is  often  due  to  essen- 
tial oils;  the  presence  of  these  in  the  excretions  cannot  be  said 
to  diminish  the  value  of  the  substances  in  supplying  to  the 
tissues  the  necessary  elements.  The  same  holds  true  for  con- 
diments; the  essential  oils  conspicuous  in  them  are  accorded 
only  stimulating  properties;  however,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  essential  oils  in  tea  and  coffee  are  accredited  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  dietetic  value  of  these  beverages.  It  appears  that 
when  condiments  are  used  in  food,  especially  for  the  sick, 
they  may  serve  the  double  purpose  of  rendering  the  food  more 
appetizing  and  of  adding  to  its  nutritive  value.  The  value 
of  food  as  a  purely  therapeutic  agent  is  attracting  some  atten- 
tion at  present,  and  in  its  study  we  must  not  neglect  those 
substances  which  combine  stimulant  and  nutritive  qualities. 


PRELIMINARY  ANALYSIS   OF  THE  BARK   OF 
FOUQUIERIA  SPLENDENS1 

IN  the  published  proceedings  of  the  Mexican  Boundary 
Survey  of  1859,  conducted  by  General  William  H.  Emory, 
are  found  numerous  references  to  Fouquieria  splendens.  No 
region  of  equal  extent  presents  more  marked  illustrations  of 
the  relations  of  the  vegetation  of  a  country  to  its  topography 
and  geology  than  that  lying  along  the  Mexican  boundary  line. 
The  traveler  traversing  the  desert  table-lands  will  not  fail 
to  unite  in  his  recollections  of  these  tracts  the  dull  foliage  of 
the  creosote  bush,  the  palm-like  Yucca,  and  the  long  thorny 
wands  of  the  Fouquieria  splendens.  The  vegetation  of  the 
El  Paso  basin  and  the  Upper  Rio  Grande  valley  is  described 
as  strikingly  different  from  that  of  the  immediately  adjoining 
country :  new  and  strange  plants  are  seen  on  every  side.  Upon 
the  table-lands  many  plants  grow  not  to  be  found  in  the  more 
fertile  valleys;  among  these  is  Fouquieria,  a  tree  locally  known 
by  its  Mexican  name  ocotilla.  A  full  description  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  plant  is  given  in  the  Mexican  Boundary  Survey; 
also  one  in  an  article  by  Edward  Lee  Green.2  The  latter  author 
describes  Fouquieria  splendens  in  these  terms :  — 

"It  is  a  splendid  oddity,  and  not  more  odd  than  beautiful, 
flourishing  in  great  abundance  in  many  places.  It  grows  to 
the  height  of  from  eight  to  twelve  feet,  and  in  outline  is  quite 
precisely  fan-shaped.  The  proper  trunk,  usually  ten  to  twelve 
inches  in  diameter,  is  not  more  than  a  foot  and  a  half  high. 
A  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  sands  this  trunk  abruptly 
separates  into  a  dozen  or  more  distinct  and  almost  branch- 
less stems.  These  simple  stems,  rising  to  the  height  of  eight 

1  Paper  read  before  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Philadelphia,  1884;  also  before  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  November  7,  1884. 

2  "Botanizing  on  the  Colorado  Desert,"  American  Naturalist,  1880. 


n8        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

or  ten  feet,  gradually  diverge  from  one  another,  giving  to  the 
whole  shrub  the  outline  of  a  spread  fan.  Each  separate  stem 
is  clothed  throughout  with  short  gray  thorns  and  small  dark 
green  leaves,  and  terminates  in  a  spike,  a  foot  long,  of  bright 
scarlet  trumpet- shaped  flowers.  The  stems  are  not  so  thickly 
armed  with  thorns  but  that  they  can  be  handled  if  grasped 
circumspectly,  and  being  very  hard  and  durable,  as  well  as 
of  a  convenient  size,  they  are  much  employed  for  fencing  pur- 
poses about  the  stage  stations  and  upon  the  ranches  adjoining 
the  desert."  The  author  states:  "Give  a  skillful  Mexican 
ocotilla  poles  and  plenty  of  rawhide  thongs  and  he  requires 
neither  nail  nor  hammer  to  construct  a  line  of  fence,  which 
for  combined  strength,  neatness,  and  durability  fairly  rivals 
the  best  work  of  that  kind  done  in  our  land  of  saw  mills  and 
nail  factories." 

The  plant  is  botanically  described  under  order  Tamariscinea, 
tribe  III,  Fouquierece,  new  genus  and  species.1  For  other 
sources  of  information  see  "A  Tour  in  New  Mexico;  "  2  and  in 
1 1  Plantae  Wrightianae3  Texano-Mexicanae."  The  writer  has  not 
been  able  to  find  any  notice  of  chemical  studies  made  upon  it. 

The  specimens  of  ocotilla,  at  the  writer's  request,  were  col- 
lected and  transmitted  from  Lake  valley,  Southwest  New 
Mexico,  through  the  kindness  of  Professor  E.  D.  Cope.  The 
portions  of  the  stem,  similar  to  those  used  in  the  analysis,  vary 
in  diameter  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half.  The  bark 
shows  a  thickness  of  over  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  and  is  of  a  ,sage 
color  generally.  The  exterior  surface  is  made  rough  by  an 
interlacement  of  hard  projecting  material;  some  of  the  smaller 
stems  are  encircled  with  the  gray  thorns  described,  arising 
in  regular  series  from  the  projecting  portions  of  the  bark. 
Between  the  interlacements  are  oblong  and  diamond- shaped 
intervals,  which  are  filled  with  superimposed  layers  of  a  yel- 
lowish color  and  looking  as  if  coated  with  a  wax.  They  ap- 
pear to  be  cemented  together  by  a  glistening  substance  which, 

1  Bentham  and  Hooker,  Genera  Plantarum. 

2  By  Dr.  N.  Wislizenus. 

3  Gray,  Smithsonian  Contribittions  to  Knowledge,  vol.  iii,  part  i,  p.  85,  and 
part  ii,  p.  63. 


BARK   OF  FOUQUIERIA  SPLENDENS        119 

on  warming  the  bark,  exudes  and  possesses  a  resinous  or  gum- 
like  consistency. 

In  the  present  investigation,  the  scheme  proposed  by  Dra- 
gendorff  *  has  been  followed  out,  with  the  exception  of  the 
maceration  at  the  ordinary  temperature;  an  apparatus  simi- 
lar to  the  one  last  devised  by  Tollens  2  has  been  used  for  the 
extraction.  The  air-dried  material  reduced  to  a  very  fine 
powder  was  again  dried  at  100°  C.,  giving  9.4  %  moisture,  since 
the  great  importance  of  powdering  the  material  for  the  various 
estimations  as  insisted  upon  by  Dragendorff,3  was  fully  con- 
firmed in  these  examinations.  Quantitative  determinations 
with  ocotilla  bark  reduced  to  fine  pieces  gave  2  %  and  3.5  % 
less  than  the  percentage  obtained  from  the  estimations  with 
the  powdered  substance.  Determination  of  total  ash  gave 
10.26  %;  a  qualitative  ash  analysis  showed  the  presence  of 
calcium,  magnesium,  aluminum,  potassium,  sodium,  and  a 
trace  of  iron;  sulphates,  phosphates,  and  chlorides. 

Ten  grams  of  the  air-dried  powder  treated  with  petroleum 
spirit  of  boiling  point  46°  C.  extracted  a  substance  without 
aromatic  odor,  communicating  to  the  liquid  a  light  color. 
From  100  c.  c.  a  measured  portion  was  evaporated  for  de- 
termination of  total  amount  of  substances  brought  into  solu- 
tion. The  residue  dried  at  100°  C.  gave  9  % ;  at  110°  C.  8.87  % ; 
at  120°  C.  8.875  %  and  a  loss  of  .125  %  showing  scarcely  ap- 
preciable trace  of  volatile  oil.  The  remainder  of  the  petroleum 
spirit  extract,  on  evaporation  at  the  ordinary  temperature, 
left  a  solid  yellowish-green  wax  substance  of  specific  gravity 
.984,  melting  from  84°  C.  to  85°  C.,  insoluble  in  water,  slowly 
soluble  in  boiling  95  %  alcohol,  readily  in  absolute  alcohol,  in 
cold  ether,  chloroform,  amyl  alcohol,  benzole,  carbon  disul- 
phide,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  linseed  oil;  slightly  dissolved 
in  aqueous  alkalies,  but  not  saponifying  with  them.  It  is  col- 
ored yellow  by  nitric  acid;  acted  upon  by  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  not  by  hydrochloric  acid  or  aqua  regia. 

1  Plant  Analysis,  Qualitative  and    Quantitative,   G.  Dragendorff,  Ph.  D. 
Translated  from  the  German  by  H.  G.  Greenish.   London,  1884. 

2  Zeitschrift  /.  anal.  Chemie,  xiv,  82,  1875,  and  xvii,  320,  1878. 

3  Loc.  cit. 


120        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

By  means  of  combining  sulphuric  acid  and  solvents,  I  was 
able  to  obtain  several  color  reactions  that  may  prove  upon 
further  investigation  of  value  in  identification  of  the  different 
vegetable  waxes.  With  Japanese  wax,  the  only  specimen  of 
vegetable  wax  I  could  obtain,  the  color  reactions  differed  in 
each  test  from  the  substance  under  consideration.  The  fol- 
lowing color  reactions  were  obtained  with  the  petroleum  spirit 
residue.  When  small  fragments  were  stirred  on  a  watch  crystal 
with  two  or  three  drops  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  of  1.84 
sp.  gr.,  the  substance  at  once  changed  color  to  a  clear  garnet 
red  and  was  slowly  dissolved  by  the  acid,  the  liquid  remain- 
ing colored;  with  different  portions  of  the  red  acid  liquid 
stirred  on  a  watch  crystal  with  various  solvents  used  in  ex- 
cess, it  was  noted  as  follows:  with  absolute  alcohol  the  color 
was  instantly  dissipated,  leaving  a  white  precipitate;  petro- 
leum spirit  discolored  the  acid  solution,  leaving  no  precipi- 
tate; ether  discolored  it  with  gray  precipitate;  chloroform 
changed  the  red  acid  liquid  to  yellow,  no  precipitate;  with 
benzole  the  red  color  was  changed  to  snuff-brown,  gradu- 
ally passing  to  red-brown;  amyl  alcohol  gave  a  rose-pink, 
slowly  passing  through  varying  tints  to  a  fine  purple.  So-called 
pure  amyl  alcohol  was  used,  and  when  tested  did  not  give  a 
color  reaction  alone  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  petroleum  spirit 
residue  on  boiling  with  absolute  alcohol  and,  when  warm, 
thrown  into  several  times  its  volume  of  cold  water,  separated 
out  as  a  white  cloud. 

Under  a  method  by  which  melissyl  alcohol  has  been  ob- 
tained from  carnaiiba  wax,1  the  petroleum  spirit  residue  was 
submitted  to  a  like  treatment.  It  was  boiled  with  alcoholic 
potash  and  saponified,  the  alcohol  distilled  off  and  lead  acetate 
added;  a  heavy  light  yellow-colored  precipitate  formed,  and 
on  boiling,  yellow  masses  separated  out.  They  were  washed, 
dried,  and  boiled  with  absolute  ether.  The  filtered  liquid 
on  cooling  deposited  a  yellow  crystalline  substance,  which, 
on  heating  on  platinum  foil,  turned  black  and  disappeared. 
Beyond  ascertaining  the  fusing-point,  solubilities,  and  color 
reactions,  the  substance  was  not  further  examined.  It  was 

1  Liebig,  Annalen,  183,  p.  344,  teste  Watts's  Diet.  Chem. 


BARK   OF  FOUQUIERIA  SPLENDENS        121 

found  to  fuse  between  43°  C.  and  60°  C.,  the  greatest  change 
occurring  between  57°  C.  and  60°  C.;  to  be  soluble  in  chloro- 
form and  ether;  scarcely  soluble  in  cold  absolute  alcohol; 
very  slightly  soluble  in  boiling  95  %  alcohol;  not  acted  upon 
by  nitric  acid  or  aqua  regia.  Sulphuric  acid  dissolved  the 
substance  and  gave  an  orange  color  reaction  discolored  on  add- 
ing alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  ammonia  to  the  acid  liquid, 
with  no  precipitate;  with  amyl  alcohol  a  pale  rose  pink,  quickly 
fading,  and  with  benzole  a  brown  color  were  obtained.  The 
color  tests  differed  from  those  obtained  with  the  substance 
before  saponification  and  treating  with  boiling  ether,  indi- 
cating that  the  petroleum  spirit  residue  can  be  separated  into 
at  least1  two  substances,  and  possibly  more,  which  remain  to 
be  determined  by  a  future  study. 

The  powder  exhausted  by  petroleum  spirit  was  dried  and 
similarly  treated  with  absolute  ether,  as  in  the  previous  ex- 
traction. The  ethereal  extract  of  a  greenish  color  gave  an  acid 
reaction  with  litmus,  and  on  addition  of  alcohol  the  liquid 
became  turbid.  Spectroscopic  examination  failed  to  detect 
the  characteristic  chlorophyll  bands.  The  ethereal  residue 
on  evaporation  presented  differences  in  color  and  solidity 
from  the  petroleum  spirit  residue.  It  was  quite  brittle,  and 
was  not  appreciably  softened  at  120°  C.  It  gave,  when  dried 
at  100°  C.  4.52  %  of  solids  extracted ;  at  no°C.  4.44  %;  and 
at  120°  C.  4.42  %.  The  residue  when  evaporated  at  ordinary 
temperature  was  insoluble  in  petroleum  spirit,  slightly  solu- 
ble in  95  %  alcohol  and  carbon  di- sulphide,  quite  soluble  in 
cold  absolute  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol,  chloroform,  benzole,  and 
oil  of  turpentine.  Nitric  acid  gave  no  reaction.  With  sul- 
phuric acid  and  small  portions  of  the  ethereal  residue,  I 
obtained  a  dark  mahogany  color.  This  solution  on  adding 
absolute  alcohol  was  partially  discolored,  no  precipitate.  With 
ether  the  sulphuric  acid  solution  gave  a  greenish  precipitate; 
with  amyl  alcohol  the  acid  solution  was  discolored,  changing 
to  pale  red,  then  green.  These  tests  showing  in  each  case  a 
wide  difference  in  color  reactions  from  those  obtained  with 
the  petroleum  spirit  residue.  The  amount  of  solids  taken  up 
on  treating  the  ethereal  residue  with  water  was  .36  %.  The 


122        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

aqueous  liquid  was  neutral  to  litmus,  portions  tested  for 
alkaloids  gave  negative  results;  on  warming  and  addition  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  Fehling's  solution  was  reduced,  indi- 
cating possibly  glucosides. 

The  portion  insoluble  in  water  was  then  treated  with  abso- 
lute alcohol.  The  liquid  gave  an  acid  reaction  with  test  paper. 
A  measured  part  of  the  liquid  was  evaporated  and  the  weighed 
residue  showed  1.6  %  of  solids  dissolved.  The  residue  from 
the  evaporated  alcoholic  liquid  was  partially  dissolved  by 
aqueous  alkalies.  It  readily  saponified  with  alcoholic  soda, 
forming  a  soft  brown  soap,  which  on  boiling  with  lead  ace- 
tate yielded  a  yellow  precipitate.  This  was  collected  on  a  filter 
and  washed.  When  the  precipitate  was  boiled  with  absolute 
ether  and  the  filtrate  allowed  to  evaporate  slowly,  a  white 
organic  crystalline  substance  separated  out.  Under  the  micro- 
scope, particles  of  coloring  matter  were  found  to  be  inter- 
spersed among  the  crystalline  structures. 

The  indications  would  show  an  acid  resin  to  have  been  ex- 
tracted by  the  ether. 

The  ten  grams  of  powdered  bark,  after  exhaustion  with 
petroleum  spirit  followed  by  absolute  ether,  were  treated  with 
absolute  alcohol.  A  measured  quantity  of  the  alcoholic  ex- 
tract was  evaporated  in  a  weighed  platinum  dish,  dried,  until 
weight  noted  was  constant.  After  incineration  the  amount 
of  ash  was  found  to  be  .15  %  of  the  original  material.  The 
alcoholic  extract,  for  determination  of  total  amount  of  organic 
solids  dissolved,  was  evaporated  in  a  current  of  carbonic  acid, 
when  the  residue  dried  gave  8.6  %  and  7.98  %  of  solids  re- 
spectively. A  cloudiness  formed  on  the  addition  of  water  to 
the  residue,  which  cleared  up  on  addition  of  alkalies.  It  was 
restored  by  acid.  The  aqueous  liquid  gave  precipitates  with 
calcium  and  lead  salts.  It  reduced  Fehling's  solution  on  add- 
ing dilute  acid,  and  warming.  Negative  results  followed  tests 
for  alkaloids.  Treating  with  two  volumes  of  absolute  alcohol, 
according  to  DragendorfT,  for  detection  of  gum,  vegetable 
mucilage  was  separated.  Tests  failed  to  detect  the  presence 
of  tannin. 

The  residue  of  the  powdered  bark,  after  exhaustion  with 


BARK   OF  FOUQUIERIA   SPLENDENS        123 

absolute  alcohol,  was  treated  with  cold  water.  A  deep-red 
mucilaginous  liquid,  which  became  frothy  on  shaking,  was 
extracted.  The  amount  of  solids  in  this  solution,  on  evapo- 
rating the  liquid  and  weighing  the  residue,  was  found  to  be 
19.11  %.  In  absence  of  acid  or  boiling,  glucose  was  identified 
by  Fehling's  solution,  also  by  Mulder's  test.  A  gum,  separated 
by  absolute  alcohol  and  quantitatively  estimated,  showed 
4.8  %  of  the  amount  of  substances  dissolved  in  water.  The 
powdered  residue,  after  treatment  with  water,  was  macer- 
ated with  dilute  acid,  and  gave  negative  tests  for  alkaloids. 
The  extraction  with  caustic  soda  for  identification  of  albumi- 
nous substances,  followed  by  chlorine  water  for  the  estima- 
tion of  lignin  and  cellulose,  have  not  as  yet  been  determined. 
The  results  of  the  proximate  analysis  as  so  far  completed 
may  be  stated  as  follows :  — 

Moisture 9.4  per  cent. 

Petroleum  spirit  residue 9. 

Ethereal  residue 4.52  " 

Alcholic  residue 8.6  " 

Water  residue 19.11 

Total  ash 10.26  " 

Alcholic  extract  ash 00.15  " 

61.04  " 

The  difference  of  38.96  %  would  include  pectose,  color- 
ing matter,  and  cellulose  or  woody  fibre. 

A  qualitative  ash  determination  showed  the  presence  of 
calcium,  magnesium,  aluminum,  potassium,  sodium,  a  trace 
of  iron,  sulphates,  phosphates,  and  chlorides. 

Petroleum  spirit  extracted  a  solid  substance,  yellowish- 
green  in  color,  of  sp.  gravity  .984,  melting  from  84°  C.  to  85° 
C.,  insoluble  in  water,  slightly  soluble  in  boiling  95  %  alcohol, 
soluble  in  absolute  alcohol,  cold  ether,  chloroform,  amyl  alco- 
hol, benzole,  carbon  di-sulphide,  oil  of  turpentine,  and  linseed 
oil.  It  was  slightly  acted  upon  by  aqueous  alkalies,  but  readily 
saponified  with  alcoholic  soda.  Treating  the  soap  with  lead 
acetate  and  boiling  the  precipitate  with  ether,  a  yellow  crystal- 
line substance  was  obtained,  melting  from  43°  C.  to  60°  C. 


i24       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Sulphuric  acid  combined  with  solvents  gave  characteristic 
and  distinct  reactions  with  the  yellowish-green  petroleum  spirit 
residue,  and  with  the  crystalline  substance  separated  from  it. 

A  scheme  has  been  proposed  for  the  identification  of  vari- 
ous waxes,  based  upon  quantitative  experiments.1  The  exam- 
ination rendered  division  into  two  groups  possible,  according 
to  the  solubilities  of  the  waxes  with  chloroform.  Again,  their 
action  with  ether,  and  acetate  of  lead  solution  added  to  the 
alcoholic  solutions,  allows  the  several  varieties  of  waxes  to  be 
distinguished  from  one  another. 

The  petroleum  spirit  residue  was  submitted  to  the  tests 
proposed  in  Hirschsohn's  scheme.  It  was  boiled  with  ten  times 
its  volume  of  chloroform,  and  when  cool  the  liquid  became 
cloudy.  By  this  test,  the  petroleum  spirit  residue  was  placed 
in  the  group  with  carnauba  and  Bahia  wrax.  An  ethereal 
solution  of  the  petroleum  spirit  residue,  on  adding  an  equal 
volume  of  alcohol,  remained  clear.  According  to  Hirsch- 
sohn's scheme,2  an  ethereal  solution  of  Bahia  wax  similarly 
treated  remains  clear,  and  by  this  means  the  wax  is  distin- 
guished from  carnaiiba  wax,  which  it  is  said  to  resemble  in 
most  of  its  properties.  The  wax  from  Copernicia  cerifera,  the 
carnaiiba  tree  of  Brazil,  and  carnauba  wax  obtained  from 
the  leaves  of  Corypha  cerijera,  are  related  very  closely  by  their 
chemical  properties,  and  possibly  are  identical.3 

Carnauba  wax  is  described  as  a  clear  yellow  wax  with  a  green- 
ish tinge,  and  harder  than  beeswax.  It  contains  a  notable 
percentage  of  free  melissyl  alcohol  and  other  alcohols  very 
difficult  to  separate.  Insoluble  in  water,  it  is  dissolved  with 
difficulty  by  alcohol  and  ether,  though  readily  soluble  in  car- 
bon di-sulphide  and  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  not  acted  upon  by 
linseed  oil;  it  is  changed  yellow  by  nitric  acid;  with  sulphuric 
acid  no  appreciable  effect  is  produced.  The  melting-point 
is  variously  stated  from  82°  to  85°  C.  The  specific  gravity 
from  .998  to  .999. 

1  "Contributions  to  the  Chemistry  of  Several  Varieties  of  Wax,"  by  E. 
Hirschsohn,  Pharmaceutical  Journal  and  Transactions,  vol.  x,  March,  1880. 

2  Loc.  cit. 

3  Gmelin,  Handbook  of  Chemistry,  vol.  xviii.     Translated  by  H.  Watts, 
London. 


BARK   OF  FOUQUIERIA  SPLENDENS        125 

A  table  of  the  specific  gravity  of  the  different  kinds  of  waxes, 
prepared  by  Dietrich,1  shows  the  density  of  animal  wax  to  be 
notably  low,  compared  with  vegetable  waxes.  Allen2  states 
that  the  presence  of  vegetable  wax  in  adulterations  of  bees- 
wax is  positively  established  if  the  density  of  the  sample  ex- 
ceed .970. 

By  the  method  followed  out  in  this  analysis,  petroleum 
spirit  extracted  from  the  powdered  bark  a  substance  of  con- 
stant melting-point,  which  is  identified  as  a  wax.  It  resem- 
bles, in  its  ethereal  solution  not  clouding  on  addition  of  alco- 
hol, Bahia  wax;  in  melting-point  and  specific  gravity,  car- 
naiiba  wax;  also  the  latter  wax  by  its  insolubility  in  water 
and  action  with  nitric  acid.  It  differs  from  carnaiiba  wax  in 
its  greater  degree  of  solubility  in  absolute  alcohol,  ether, 
and  aqueous  alkalies.  Linseed  oil  is  an  active  solvent  for  it, 
but  does  not  dissolve  carnaiiba  wax.  The  color  reactions  of 
the  petroleum  spirit  residue  with  sulphuric  acid  have  been 
described  above.  It  is  stated  that  sulphuric  acid  produces  no 
effect  with  carnaiiba  wax.3 

The  wax  obtained  from  the  bark  of  Fouquieria  splendens 
differs  generally  in  its  properties  from  known  vegetable  waxes, 
and  is  evidently  a  new  wax  peculiar  to  this  plant.  I  propose 
that  it  be  called  ocotilla  wax. 

In  the  ether,  absolute  alcohol,  and  water  extracts,  the  pre- 
sence of  an  acid  resin,  a  white  crystalline  substance,  gum  resin, 
glucose,  possibly  glucosides,  gum,  and  a  red  coloring  matter 
were  indicated. 

The  investigations  described  in  the  preceding  pages  were 
conducted  in  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy,  August  and  September,  1884. 

1  E.  Dietrich,  "Specific  Gravity  of  Wax."    Journal  of  Chemical  Society, 
1882,  vol.  xlii,  p.  1139. 

2  A.  H.  Allen,  Commercial  Organic  Analysis.  (Also  see  in  same  work  tables 
of  sp.  gr.,  Waxes.) 

8  A.  B.  Prescott,  Outlines  of  Proximate  Organic  Analysis. 


A  CHEMICAL  STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA1 

THIS  plant  is  well  known  in  the  West  as  the  "soapweed." 
It  grows  very  abundantly  in  most  of  the  Western  States  and 
territories.  It  has  attracted  the  attention  of  botanists,  and 
is  a  plant  of  interest  on  account  of  the  many  uses  to  which  it 
has  been  put  in  the  countries  where  it  is  found. 

The  results  noted  in  this  paper  are  based  upon  a  first  and 
introductory  chemical  analysis  of  the  Yucca.  Previously,  little 
has  been  studied  of  its  chemistry.  It  is  briefly  mentioned  in 
the  work  of  a  French  writer,  Dr.  Georges  Pennetier; 2  also, 
in  a  paper  on  the  study  of  manganese  found  in  the  ash  of  plants, 
in  which  M.  Maumene  states  that  the  ash  of  the  Yucca  con- 
tains manganese.3  He  does  not  name  what  species  of  Yucca 
was  examined.  The  former  writer  gives  the  micro-chemical 
characters  of  the  action  of  iodine  and  sulphuric  acid,  dilute 
chromic  acid,  and  cuprammonia  on  the  fibres  of  the  Yucca 
angustifolia. 

The  specimens  of  Yucca  used  in  these  analyses  were  of  large 
growth  and  in  good  condition.  The  entire  plant  was  examined, 
and  a  separate  study  made  of  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  root, 
and  of  the  green  leaf  and  the  yellow  basal  part.  The  roots 
were  air-dried,  freed  from  adherent  dust,  reduced  to  a  very 
fine  powder,  and  passed  through  a  No.  80  sieve.  The  leaves 
were  less  finely  powdered. 

DragendorfFs  scheme  for  plant  analysis  4  has  been  gener- 

1  Read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  December  18,  1885. 
An  abstract  of  this  paper  was  read  before  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  August 
28,  1885. 

2  Lecons  sur  les  Matter es  Premieres  Organiques,  Paris,  1881,  p.  446. 

3  M.  E.  J.  Maumene,  Bui.  de  la  Societi  Chimique   de  Paris,  tome  xlii, 

P-  3°5- 

4  Plant  Analysis,  Qualitative  and  Quantitative,  by  G.  Dragendorff.  Trans- 
lated from  the  .German  by  Henry  Greenish,  London,  1884. 


STUDY   OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         127 

ally  followed.  Ten  grams  of  the  air-dried  powder  were  used 
for  the  preliminary  examination  of  soluble  substances.  For 
every  gram  of  the  powder,  ten  c.  c.  of  the  solvents  were  em- 
ployed. An  additional  quantity  of  the  powder  was  prepared 
for  special  purposes.  Five  grams  of  the  air-dried  powder  were 
dried,  in  a  hot-air  oven,  at  a  temperature  between  100°  C. 
and  110°  C.,  until  the  weight  remained  constant,  for  the  esti- 
mation of  moisture.  This  powder  was  incinerated  in  a  cov- 
ered porcelain  crucible  at  a  dull  red  heat  until  the  carbon  was 
entirely  consumed.  The  per  cent,  of  total  ash  was  determined 
from  it. 

QUALITATIVE  ASH  ANALYSES 

Calcium,  magnesium,  potassium,  sodium,  iron,  manganese, 
chlorides,  phosphates,  and  sulphates  were  found  in  every  part 
of  the  plant. 

f   i.  MOISTURE   ) 

<  >    on    the  powder. 

|  II.  TOTAL  ASH  j 


Determination  of 


/. 

Per  cent. 

II. 

Per  cent. 

Color  of  Ash. 

i.  The  bark  of  the  root 

6  78 

17  38 

reddish 

2.     "    wood      "         

11.67 

3X7C 

"       gray 

3.     "  green  leaf  

8.ii 

c.7C 

gray 

4.     "  yellow  base  of  leaf 

•27  OO 

10  61 

white 

o/*v 

PETROLEUM   SPIRIT  EXTRACTS 

Extract  (i)  Bark  of  Root. 

The  maceration  was  conducted  in  an  apparatus  similar  to 
one  described  in  DragendorfFs  "Plant  Analysis."1  A  light 
petroleum  spirit  was  used  which  boiled  between  25°  C.  and 
45°  C.  The  extract  was  filtered  from  the  powder-residue.  It 
was  a  clear  pale  yellow-colored  liquid,  and  slightly  acid  in 
reaction.  A  drop  of  the  extract  on  evaporating  left  a  uniform 

1  Page  99,  Tollen's  apparatus. 


128        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

spot  on  blue  paper.  The  extract  was  evaporated  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature.  The  residue  was  a  solid,  and  it  had  the  odor 
and  characteristic  crystalline  structure  of  fatty  acids,  suggest- 
ing the  presence  of  a  fixed  oil.  Its  melting-point  was  taken. 
The  substance  melted  at  60°  C.,  and  on  cooling  solidified 
amorphous.  To  determine  the  total  amount  of  solids  extracted, 
a  definite  volume  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  dried,  and 
weighed. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Petroleum  spirit  residue  dried  at  100°  C 1.24  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"  110°  C -.1.20  „  „         „ 

0.04        „        „    loss. 

The  residue  was  identified  as  a  fixed  oil.  It  was  soluble 
in  petroleum  spirit,  ether,  benzole,  chloroform,  amyl  alcohol, 
carbon  di-sulphide,  and  cold  aqueous  alkalies;  incompletely 
soluble  in  cold  or  boiling  86  per  cent,  alcohol,  95  per  cent,  alco- 
hol, absolute  alcohol,  acetic  ether,  and  ammonium  hydrate. 
No  change  of  color  was  observed  on  treating  the  fixed  oil 
with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  nor  on  the  addition  of 
syrupy  phosphoric  acid,  though  it  was  partially  soluble  in 
these  acids.  Phosphoric  acid  colored  it  yellow;  it  was  col- 
ered  yellowish  by  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  and  nitric 
acid  of  1.22  specific  gravity.  A  mixture  of  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  and  nitric  acid  of  1.22  specific  gravity  changed 
the  color  of  the  fixed  oil  to  a  reddish-brown;  it  was  colored 
pale  green  by  sulphuric  acid  of  1.634  sp.  gr.  and  of  1.53  sp. 
gr.  Calcium  di-sulphide  gave  a  bright  green  color  reaction 
with  the  fixed  oil,  but  did  not  form  an  emulsion  with  it; 
aqueous  solutions  of  gold  and  platinum  chlorides  were  re- 
duced by  it.  The  fixed  oil  was  saponified  with  difficulty  by 
alcoholic  soda;  but  readily  by  boiling  aqueous  soda;  a  white 
fragile  soap  was  separated  and  filtered  from  the  liquid.  The 
soap  was  decomposed  by  hydrochloric  acid  and  the  fatty 
acids  separated.  The  nitrate  from  the  soap  was  examined 
for  glycerin.  By  the  method  *  used,  an  oily  liquid  was  ob- 

1  Plant  Analysis,  G.  Dragendorff,  p.  12. 


STUDY   OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         129 

tained;  it  was  heated  with  anhydrous  borax  on  platinum  foil, 
and  gave  the  usual  green-colored  flame  test  for  glycerin.  The 
alcoholic  solution  of  the  petroleum  spirit  residue  was  fraction- 
ally precipitated  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  magnesium 
acetate,  and  traces  of  an  amorphous  residue  were  recovered.1 
The  petroleum  spirit  residue  was  digested  with  water  con- 
taining sulphuric  acid,  and  examined  for  alkaloids  which  are 
sometimes  brought  down  with  fixed  oils.  The  usual  reagents 
failed  to  detect  traces  of  alkaloids. 

Extract  (2),  Wood  o)  the  Root. 

The  maceration  was  carried  out  under  the  same  conditions 
as  in  extract  (i). 

The  extract  was  a  clear,  colorless  solution,  neutral  in  reac- 
tion. A  drop  of  the  liquid  left  no  uniform  spot  on  blue  paper. 
The  extract  was  evaporated  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  The 
residue  was  light  yellow- colored,  of  a  semi-solid  consistency 
and  melted  at  36°  C.  A  definite  volume  of  the  extract  was 
evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed. 

TOTAL    SOLIDS. 

Petroleum  spirit  residue  dried  at  100°  C 0.55  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"    no0  C 0.35      "         "      " 

o^T     "         "    loss. 

The  residue  was  identified  as  a  fixed  oil,  associated  with 
volatile  fatty  acids.  The  latter  were  indicated  by  the  0.2  per 
cent,  of  loss,  and  the  disagreeable  odor  of  the  residue  which 
was  dissipated  on  heating  at  110°  C. 

The  petroleum  spirit  residue  from  the  extract  was  evapo- 
rated at  the  ordinary  temperature,  dissolved  with  difficulty 
in  cold  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  in  boiling  weaker  alcohol; 
absolute  alcohol  hardened  and  discolored  it.  Concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  nitric  acid,  and  hydrochloric  acid  did  not  appre- 
ciably act  on  the  residue.  It  was  not  saponified,  but  slowly 
dissolved  by  boiling  aqueous  and  alcoholic  soda.  The  alco- 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  1 6. 


130       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

holic  solution  of  the  petroleum  spirit  residue  was  submitted 
to  a  fractional  precipitation  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  mag- 
nesium acetate.  The  first  precipitation  obtained  was  puri- 
fied by  boiling  alcohol;  it  was  an  opaque  scaly  crystalline 
solid  which  melted  at  85°  C.  The  second  precipitation  yielded 
traces  of  a  white  amorphous  substance.  The  third  precipi- 
tation resulted  from  adding  strong  ammonia  water  to  the 
magnesium  acetate  solution,  and  the  purified  residue  melted 
at  60°  C. 

Negative  tests  for  alkaloids  followed  an  examination  of 
the  aqueous  treatment  of  the  petroleum  spirit  residue. 

Extract  (3),  Green  Part  oj  the  Leaf. 

The  method  of  extraction  was  the  same  as  that  used  in  the 
previous  extractions.  The  extract  was  clear,  pale  green  in 
color,  and  non- fluorescent.  It  was  colored  by  a  small  quan- 
tity of  chlorophyll,  which  the  petroleum  spirit  dissolved.  The 
liquid  was  acid  in  reaction.  A  drop  of  it  left  a  permanent  stain 
on  blue  paper,  when  evaporating.  The  extract  was  evaporated 
at  the  ordinary  temperature,  and  the  residue  was  a  dark  green- 
ish-yellow semi-fluid  substance.  The  solidifying  point  was 
taken.  It  was  found  to  be  about  15°  C.  A  definite  volume  of 
the  petroleum  spirit  extract  was  evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Petroleum  spirit  residue  dried  at  100°  C 2.20  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"         110°  C 2.01         "  "          " 

^79       "        "    loss. 

The  petroleum  spirit  residue  was  identified  as  a  fixed  oil 
with  a  small  amount  of  chlorophyll  that  had  been  brought 
into  solution  by  it.  It  was  soluble  in  cold  83  per  cent,  alcohol, 
95  per  cent,  alcohol,  absolute  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol,  ether, 
acetic  ether,  chloroform,  benzole,  carbon  di-sulphide  and 
glycerin.  It  was  also  soluble  in  oil  of  turpentine,  almond  oil, 
ammonium  hydrate,  mercuric  chloride,  and  slowly  soluble 
in  acetic  acid.  Concentrated  nitric  acid,  and  hydrochloric 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         131 

acid  slowly  dissolved  the  fixed  oil;  the  former  colored  it  dark 
green,  and  on  stirring  the  mixture  the  color  was  changed  to 
a  brown.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolved  and  changed 
it  to  a  very  dark  brown  color;  on  adding  concentrated  nitric 
acid,  the  liquid  was  changed  to  a  reddish-brown  color. 

The  following  reactions  were  noted:  The  fixed  oil  changed 
to  a  hard  greenish-yellow  substance  on  heating  it  with  anhy- 
drous borax  on  platinum  foil.  When  rubbed  on  a  crucible 
lid  with  powdered  rosaniline,  it  was  colored  red,  showing  the 
presence  of  free  fatty  acids.  It  did  not  emulsify  with  calcium 
di-sulphide  nor  with  syrupy  antimony  chloride,  but  it  was 
colored  dark-green  by  the  latter.  It  was  imperfectly  dissolved 
by  phosphoric  acid,  and  slowly  soluble  in  equal  parts  of 
cane  sugar  and  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid;  more  rap- 
idly soluble  in  equal  parts  of  cane  sugar  and  nitric  acid.  An 
aqueous  solution  of  picric  acid  made  alkaline  by  sodium  car- 
bonate colored  the  fixed  oil  a  light  reddish-brown  color ;  cane 
sugar  added  to  the  solution  facilitated  dissolving  it.  It  was 
instantly  dissolved  by  equal  parts  of  picric  acid  and  acid  am- 
monium phosphate,  and  on  warming  with  stannous  chloride, 
leaving  a  turbid  yellow-colored  liquid.  It  was  insoluble  in 
aqueous  barium  hydrate;  soluble  in  alcoholic  ammonia  with 
no  coloration,  and  in  sulphurous  acid.  It  was  colored  brown 
when  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  of  1.634  specific  gravity,  and 
incompletely  dissolved;  it  was  also  colored  brown  by  ferric 
chloride.  On  adding  to  the  fixed  oil  sulphuric  acid  of  1.475 
specific  gravity,  and  a  small  quantity  of  zinc,  hydrogen  was 
generated,  and  the  solubility  of  the  oil  in  the  acid  liquid  was 
accompanied  by  a  rosy  tint  given  to  the  solution. 

Extract  (4),  Yellow  Part  of  the  Leaf. 

The  extract  was  obtained  by  a  similar  process  to  that  used 
for  the  other  petroleum  spirit  extracts.  The  extract  was  a  pale 
yellow-colored  liquid.  The  reaction  was  slightly  acid.  A  uni- 
form spot  was  left  on  blue  paper  as  the  drop  evaporated.  The 
petroleum  spirit  was  evaporated  at  the  ordinary  temperature, 
and  a  vellow-colored  residue  recovered,  of  a  semi-solid  con- 


132        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

sistency  and  crystalline  in  structure.  It  solidified  at  12°  C. 
From  a  definite  volume  of  the  petroleum  spirit  extract,  the 
amount  of  total  solids  was  determined. 


TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Petroleum  spirit  residue  dried  at  100°  C i.i  per  cent,  of  solids. 

110°  C i.i        "         "      " 

ooo        "         "    loss. 

The  residue  was  identified  as  a  fixed  oil.  It  was  soluble 
in  warm  absolute  alcohol,  incompletely  soluble  in  weaker  al- 
cohol; soluble  in  cold  acetic  ether,  chloroform,  benzole,  amyl 
alcohol,  ether,  carbon  di-sulphide,  and  glycerin.  It  was  saponi- 
fied with  aqueous  soda  and  a  white  soap  separated.  No  re- 
action was  observed  with  picric  acid  and  ammonium  phos- 
phate, nor  with  nitric  acid  of  1.32  specific  gravity  and  1.18 
specific  gravity.  The  fixed  oil  was  soluble  in  potassio-mer- 
curic  iodide  solution;  and  colored  dark  brown  by  alcoholic 
ammonia.  A  mixture  of  ferric  chloride  solution  and  powdered 
rosaniline  gave  a  fine  violet- colored  reaction  with  the  fixed 
oil. 

An  examination  of  the  aqueous  treatment  of  the  petroleum 
spirit  residues  (3)  and  (4),  for  alkaloids,  gave  negative  results. 
A  portion  of  the  original  powder,  from  each  of  the  four  parts 
of  the  plant,  was  mixed  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  and  the  distillate  examined  for  volatile  alkaloids  with 
negative  results. 

SUMMARY  I.    PETROLEUM  SPIRIT  EXTRACTS 


Solids  ex- 
tracted. 

Character 
of  residue. 

Reaction 
with 
litmus. 

Melting 
point. 

Solidifying 
point. 

i  .  Bark  of  the  root  
2.  Wood  of  the  root... 

1.24  % 
0-55  % 

2  20  % 

fixed  oil 
fixed  oil 
(    fixed  oil   \ 

slightly  acid 
neutral 

acid 

60°  C. 
36°  C. 
(semi-fluid  at) 

(solid  at  ordinary 
\    temperature 

15°  C. 

4.  Yellow  base  of  leaf 

1.10% 

(chlorophyll) 
fixed  oil 

faintly  acid. 

\    ordinary    > 
(temperature) 

12°  C. 

The  solids  extracted  by  petroleum  spirit  from  the  four  parts 
of  the  plant  are  identified  as  fixed  oils; l  associated  with  a  vola- 

1  "Fixed  Oils,"  Science,  September  n,  1885. 


STUDY   OF   YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         133 

tile  principle  (0.2  per  cent.)  in  extract  (2),  and  with  traces  of 
chlorophyll  in  extract  (3). 

Fixed  oil  (i)  was  crystalline  in  structure.  It  was  soluble 
in  ether,  chloroform,  benzole,  carbon  di-sulphide,  and  amyl 
alcohol;  incompletely  soluble  in  cold  or  boiling  alcohol,  acetic 
ether,  and  ammonium  hydrate.  It  was  colored  pale  green 
by  sulphuric  acid  of  1.634  specific  gravity,  and  changed  to 
a  bright-green  color  by  calcium  di-sulphide,  but  formed  no 
emulsion  with  it.  Phosphoric  acid  colored  it  yellow.  The 
fixed  oil  was  saponified,  and  a  white  soap  separated.  This 
was  decomposed,  and  the  fatty  acids  recovered.  Glycerin 
was  separated  from  the  soap  filtrate. 

Fixed  oil  (2)  was  dissolved  with  difficulty  in  boiling  95  per 
cent,  alcohol,  and  hardened  and  discolored  by  absolute  alcohol. 
It  was  not  saponified.  Crystalline  solids  were  separated  by 
precipitating  the  alcoholic  solution  with  magnesium  acetate. 
They  melted  at  85°  C.  and  at  60°  C,  respectively. 

Fixed  oil  (3)  was  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform, 
benzole,  carbon  di-sulphide,  oil  of  turpentine,  almond  oil, 
glycerin,  and  slowly  soluble  in  acetic  ether.  The  presence  of 
free  fatty  acids  was  demonstrated.  The  fixed  oil  was  colored 
dark-green  by  syrupy  antimony  chloride;  on  adding  to  it  sul- 
phuric acid  of  1.475  specific  gravity,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
zinc,  hydrogen  was  generated,  and  the  solubility  of  the  oil  in 
the  acid  liquid  was  accompanied  by  a  rosy  tint  given  to  the 
solution. 

Fixed  oil  (4)  was  crystalline  in  structure.  It  was  soluble 
in  warm  absolute  alcohol,  in  cold  acetic  ether,  chloroform, 
benzole,  amyl  alcohol,  ether,  carbon  di-sulphide,  and  glycerin. 
It  was  saponified,  and  a  white  soap  separated.  The  fixed  oil 
was  colored  dark-brown  by  alcoholic  ammonia,  and  a  mix- 
ture of  ferric  chloride  solution  and  powdered  rosaniline  gave 
a  violet-colored  reaction  with  it. 

These  fixed  oils  differed  in  their  physical  characters  and 
chemical  reactions.  This  difference  may  be  due  to  the  pre- 
sence of  free  fatty  acids  and  glycerides  in  varying  proportions 
in  the  four  parts  of  the  plant.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in 
the  subterranean  part  of  the  Yucca,  the  oil  extracted  from 


134        PLANT   AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

the  bark  was  solid  at  the  ordinary  temperature;  from  the 
wood  it  was  of  a  less  solid  consistency;  while  the  yellow  base 
of  the  leaf  contained  an  oil  quite  soft,  and  in  the  green  leaf 
the  oil  was  almost  fluid. 

Extract  (2)  contained  an  oil  of  low  melting-point.  It  melted 
at  36°  C.  An  alcoholic  solution  was  fractionally  precipitated 
with  magnesium  acetate,  and  three  members  of  the  fatty  acid 
series  were  isolated.  The  quantities  obtained  were  small,  and 
it  was  impossible  to  do  more  than  to  take  the  melting-point 
of  two  of  the  purified  crystalline  residues.  They  melted  at 
85°  C.  and  at  60°  C.,  respectively.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  a  mixture  of  fat  acids  in  certain  proportions  has  a  lower 
melting-point  than  those  of  its  constituents. 

Alkaloids  and  volatile-alkaloids  were  not  detected  in  the 
petroleum  spirit  extracts. 

ETHER  EXTRACTS 

Extract  (i),  Bark  of  the  Root. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  petroleum  spirit  extraction 
was  dried  until  thoroughly  freed  from  petroleum  spirit.  It 
was  then  macerated  with  Squibb' s  stronger  ether  in  the  appa- 
ratus already  described.  The  ethereal  extract  was  filtered  from 
the  powder.  It  was  a  clear  crimson-colored  liquid,  tinted  by 
some  red  coloring  matter  dissolved ;  and  acid  in  reaction.  The 
extract  was  slowly  evaporated  at  the  ordinary  temperature; 
white  needle-shaped  crystals  were  seen  as  the  liquid  concen- 
trated. The  ethereal  residue  was  of  a  resinous  character.  It 
was  ruby-colored,  transparent,  and  of  a  softer  consistency 
than  ordinary  resin.  Microscopically,  the  residue  was  iden- 
tified as  a  resin  by  its  color  reaction  with  Hanstein's  aniline 
violet  solution.1  The  ethereal  residue  was  treated  with  petro- 
leum spirit  to  remove  any  traces  of  fat  that  may  have  been 
extracted  with  it.  It  was  heated  in  a  small  tube  ;  at  50°  C.  it 
experienced  a  slight  change,  and  melted  at  70°  C.  For  a  de- 
termination of  the  total  solids,  a  definite  volume  of  the  ethereal 
extract  was  evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed. 

1  Botanical  Micro-Chemistry,  Poulsen-Trelease,  Boston,  1884,  p.  59. 


STUDY   OF   YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         135 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Ethereal  residue  dried  at  100°  C  .................  3.16  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"      no0  C  .................  3.16        "       "     " 

~  "       "  loss. 


The  resin  was  incompletely  soluble  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol, 
absolute  alcohol,  and  amyl  alcohol;  readily  soluble  in  ether, 
not  appreciably  soluble  in  chloroform,  benzole,  and  carbon  di- 
sulphide.  It  was  dissolved  by  sulphuric  acid  to  a  colorless  solu- 
tion, which,  on  warming,  turned  to  a  yellow  color,  and  gradu- 
ally darkened  to  a  dull  brown  color,  fading  to  a  pale  yellow. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  separate  the  white  needle-shaped 
crystals  mentioned  above.  The  ethereal  residue  was  agitated 
with  acetic  ether.  The  liquid  was  filtered  from  the  insoluble 
matter  and  evaporated.  Traces  of  a  resinous  substance  were 
separated.  The  insoluble  matter  was  treated  with  boiling 
ether,  filtered  hot,  and  the  filtrate  concentrated.  On  cooling, 
the  white  needle-shaped  crystals  reappeared.  They  were  in- 
soluble in  water  and  in  acetic  ether. 

A  separate  portion  of  the  ethereal  extract  was  evaporated, 
and  treated  with  warm  distilled  water.  The  aqueous  extract 
was  made  up  to  a  definite  volume,  and  a  known  quantity 
evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed.  The  amount  of  total  solids 
was  almost  inappreciable  by  weight.  The  aqueous  extract 
was  not  colored  by  iron  salts,  and  it  did  not  form  a  precipitate 
with  alum  and  gelatine  solution,  lead  acetate,  potassio-mer- 
curic  iodide,  nor  gold  chloride  solutions;  showing  absence  of 
tannin,  gallic  acid,  and  alkaloids.  The  ethereal  extract  was 
directly  tested  for  these  compounds,  and  with  negative  results. 
A  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  evaporated  to  dryness, 
and  treated  with  potassa  solution,  and  the  residue  dissolved  with 
no  coloration.  Another  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was 
agitated  with  acetic  ether,  and  the  liquids  were  separated;  on 
evaporating  the  acetic  ether  solution,  traces  of  a  residue  were 
obtained  which  sulphuric  acid  acted  upon.  A  resinous  sub- 
stance separated  from  the  greenish-colored  acid  liquid;  the 
former  was  partially  disintegrated  by  cold  water. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  resin  was  1.091. 


136        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Extract  (2),  the  Wood  o)  the  Root. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  petroleum  spirit  extraction 
was  macerated  in  stronger  ether.  The  ethereal  extract  was  of 
a  reddish-yellow  color,  slightly  acid  in  reaction.  It  was  slowly 
evaporated  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  and  as  the  liquid 
concentrated,  white  needle-shaped  crystals  appeared,  and  pre- 
sented the  same  physical  structure  as  the  crystals  found  in 
the  ether  extract  (i). 

The  ethereal  residue  was  identified  as  a  resin.  It  was  a  trans- 
parent, ruby-colored  substance,  and  acid  in  reaction.  It  was 
heated  to  50°  C.,  at  that  temperature  its  color  deepened,  and 
at  70°  C.  it  melted.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  resin  was  1.091. 
A  definite  volume  of  the  ether  extract  was  evaporated,  dried, 
and  weighed  to  determine  the  amount  of  total  solids. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Ethereal  residue  dried  at  100°  C 1.70  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"     110°  C 1.45       "         "     " 

c^5    "  «  loss. 

The  resin  was  examined  by  Hirschsohn's  scheme  1  with  a 
view  to  classify  it  with  known  resins.  It  was  imperfectly  solu- 
ble in  95  per  cent,  alcohol  and  chloroform,  soluble  in  ether. 
The  alcoholic  solution  gave  a  turbidity  with  lead  acetate,  not 
cleared  upon  boiling,  and  with  ferric  chloride  formed  a  clear 
mixture.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolved  the  resin, 
leaving  a  dark  yellow-brown  liquid  which  faded  to  a  dull  yellow 
color.  The  sulphuric  acid  solution,  when  mixed  with  alcohol, 
changed  to  a  pale  gray  color.  On  addition  of  water  to  the  acid 
solution,  there  was  no  coloration  nor  separation  of  the  resin. 
Alcohol  containing  hydrochloric  acid  gave  no  color  reaction 
with  the  resin.  Bromine  solution  added  to  the  chloroform- 
resin  extract,  and  iodine  solution  to  the  ether-petroleum-resin 
extract,  gave  no  reactions.  Sodium  carbonate  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  had  no  effect  on  the  resin,  but,  on  boiling,  the 
liquid  was  colored  yellow. 

1  E.  Hirschsohn,  Watts's  Chem.  Diet.,  vol.  viii,  pt.  ii,  p.  1743. 


STUDY   OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         137 

By  the  above  examination,  this  resin  was  thrown  out  of  the 
numerous  classes  of  described  resins.  It  is  proposed  to  name 
it  yuccal.1 

Yuccal  was  soluble  in  boiling  absolute  alcohol  and  acetic 
ether;  incompletely  soluble  in  benzole,  carbon  di-sulphide, 
alcoholic  ammonia,  and  cold  acetic  ether.  The  red  color  of 
the  resin  was  removed  by  cold  acetic  ether,  a  transparent  sub- 
stance remaining,  soluble  in  hot  acetic  ether.2  Yuccal  was 
dissolved  by  potassio-mercuric  iodide.  It  reduced  aqueous 
solutions  of  gold  and  platinum  chlorides.  A  blood-red  color 
reaction  was  obtained  by  warming  a  small  quantity  of  the 
resin  on  a  crucible  lid  with  a  crystal  of  ammonium  molyb- 
date  and  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  On  adding  to  the  resin 
mixture  a  few  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  again  warm- 
ing, it  was  dissolved.  Warm  dilute  nitric  acid  dissolved  the 
resin,  colorless;  cold  nitric  acid  gave  a  brownish-green  color 
reaction.3  Yuccal  was  heated  on  platinum  foil,  and  as  it  de- 
composed the  fumes  that  were  given  off  were  pleasant  and 
aromatic.  Tests  failed  to  show  the  presence  of  benzoic  or 
cinnamic  acids. 


1  I  suggest  that  in  future  all  resins  be  distinguished  by  the  terminal  syllable 
al,  for  uniformity  of  resin  nomenclature.    "Yuccal,"  Science,  September  n, 
1885,  p.  210. 

2  I  have  examined  the  action  of  acetic  ether  as  a  solvent  for  resins.  Cold  acetic 
ether  dissolved  ordinary  resin,  turpentine,  styrax,  tolu-balsam,  mastic,  elemi, 
Canada-balsam,  Peru-balsam,  copaiba-balsam,  Venice-turpentine,  and,  incom- 
pletely, spruce-gum  and  yuccal.    In  hot  acetic  ether,  spruce-gum  and  yuccal 
were  soluble.    The  following  resins  were  insoluble  in  hot  or  cold  acetic  ether  : 
guiacum,  sandarac,  shellac,  benzoin,  olibanum,  ammoniac,  myrrh,  galbanum, 
and  asafcetida. 

3  A  reddish-yellow  decomposition  product  resulted  from  the  action  of  nitric 
acid  on  many  resins  which  followed  generally  quite  soon  after  adding  the 
acid  to  a  small  quantity  of  the  resin  (o.  i  gram  of  the  resin  and  5  c.  c.  of  nitric 
acid,  i.4sp.  gr.).    But  the  reaction  which  took  place  varied  according  to  the 
conditions,  i.  e.,  strength  of  acid  used,  the  application  of  heat  to  the  resin 
acid  mixture,  or  the  addition  of  solvents  to  the  mixture.    The  more  concen- 
trated the  acid  the  more  rapid  was  the  reaction.   The  application  of  heat  also 
hastened  the  change,  especially  if  a  more  dilute  acid  was  used  in  the  mix- 
ture.   Some  solvents  acted  like  heat  by  increasing  the  energy  of  the  reactions. 
Alcohol  and  ether  were  active  solvents,  and  the  reaction  was  attended  by  the 
escape  of  nitrous  fumes  from  the  combination  of  alcohol  or  ether  and  nitric 
acid.   Chloroform  and  benzole  were  indifferent.   Amyl  alcohol  acted  feebly. 


138       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  ethereal  residue  was  treated  with  warm  water,  and  on 
cooling,  the  liquid  was  agitated  with  acetic  ether,  which  was 
separated,  and  when  evaporated  yielded  a  small  quantity  of 
resinous  substance.  The  ethereal  residue  insoluble  in  water 
was  treated  with  boiling  ether,  and  as  the  liquid  concentrated, 
the  white  needle-shaped  crystals  were  seen  floating  in  it,  but 
on  further  concentration  they  could  not  be  seen,  and  a  yellow 
greasy-looking  mass  settled  in  the  bottom  of  the  beaker.  On 
driving  off  the  ether,  a  transparent  and  ruby-colored  resinous 
substance  remained.  The  aqueous  extract  obtained  in  the 
way  described  above  gave  no  coloration  with  iron  salts,  and 
no  precipitate  with  gelatine  and  alum  solution,  potassio-mer- 
curic  iodide,  or  gold  chloride  solutions.  Fehling's  solution 
was  not  reduced  by  boiling,  though  the  aqueous  extract  was 
boiled  with  acid,  then  rendered  alkaline  before  adding  the 
copper  test.  The  preceding  tests  gave  negative  results  for 
gallic  acid,  tannin,  alkaloids,  and  glucosides.  A  portion  of 
the  aqueous  extract  was  acidified  and  agitated  successively 
with  different  solvents,  for  glucosides,  bitter  principles,  and 
alkaloids  which  may  be  removed  from  solution  by  this  means. 
The  acid  liquid  was  then  rendered  alkaline  with  ammonia, 
and  agitated  successively  with  the  same  order  of  solvents  that 
were  used  with  the  acidified  liquid.  No  solids  were  separated 
by  these  methods.  The  ethereal  residue  insoluble  in  water  was 
treated  with  alcohol,  and  yielded  traces  of  a  resinous  sub- 
stance. The  residue,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  was  not 
dissolved  by  ether,  acids,  or  alkalies. 

Yuccal,  or  the  ethereal  residue  soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol, 
was  saponified,  and  the  soap  boiled  with  lead  acetate.  The 
yellow  masses  were  collected  on  a  filter  and  treated  with  boil- 
ing ether,  and  the  filtrate  was  slowly  evaporated.  The  residue 
was  a  granular  solid.  This  substance  was  imperfectly  puri- 
fied by  repeated  boiling  with  ether,  and  a  solid  of  crystalline 
structure  obtained.  It  gave  an  acid  reaction  with  litmus,  and 
a  red  color  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  dis- 
solved a  substance  enclosing  the  crystals,  leaving  the  struc- 
ture of  the  latter  uninjured  and  colored.  Strong  nitric  acid 
dissolved  the  crystals  with  no  coloration.  They  were  soluble 


STUDY   OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         139 

in  absolute  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol,  benzole,  chloroform,  gly- 
cerin, and  a  solution  of  alcoholic  soda;  soluble  in  potassium 
iodide,  potassium  chromate,  mercurous  nitrate,  cobalt  nitrate, 
potassium  ferro-  and  ferri-  cyanide  solutions;  insoluble  in  am- 
monia and  aqueous  alkalies. 

Yuccal  was  treated  with  spirit  of  different  strengths,  as  a 
means  of  separating  resin  acids  if  any  were  present.  It  was 
treated  with  85  per  cent,  spirit;  an  opaque  brown  substance 
was  left  undissolved,  which  was  soluble  in  absolute  alcohol; 
insoluble  in  ether,  and  colored  brown  by  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  color  was  not  discharged  by  alcohol  or  ether. 
The  85  per  cent,  spirit  solution  was  evaporated,  and  the  residue 
treated  with  50  per  cent,  spirit,  and  a  small  quantity  of  a  brown 
residue  was  insoluble.  The  50  per  cent,  spirit  solution,  on 
evaporating,  left  a  non-crystalline,  transparent,  reddish-colored 
solid,  acid  to  litmus.  It  was  colored  cherry-red  by  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  and  slowly  dissolved  to  a  yellowish-red 
liquid. 

Extract  (3),  the  Green  Part  of  the  Leaf. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  petroleum  spirit  maceration 
was  thoroughly  dried,  and  again  placed  in  the  percolator.  It 
was  treated  with  Squibb 's  stronger  ether.  The  extract  was  a 
deep  green-colored  liquid  and  fluorescent.  The  reaction  was 
slightly  acid.  Alcohol,  benzole,  and  petroleum  spirit  added 
to  the  ethereal  extract  did  not  cause  a  precipitation.  An  amor- 
phous and  green-colored  residue  was  obtained  on  evaporating 
the  extract.  The  amount  of  total  solids  was  estimated  from 
a  definite  volume  of  the  extract,  which  was  evaporated,  dried, 
and  weighed. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Ethereal  residue  dried  at  100°  C 1.25  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"      110°  C 1.14        "          "       " 


o.n  "    loss. 


The  ethereal  residue  was  brought  into  a  state  of  fine  divi- 
sion and  treated  with  water.  The  amount  of  total  solids 
soluble  in  ether  and  water  was  0.34  per  cent.  The  aqueous 


140        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

extract  was  neutral  in  reaction.  It  was  faintly  colored  and 
slightly  bitter  to  the  taste.  It  was  not  colored  by  ijpn  salts  or 
precipitated  with  alum  and  gelatine  solution,  showing  absence 
of  gallic  acid  or  tannin.  Copper  solutions  were  not  reduced, 
indicating  absence  of  glucosides,  though  the  precaution  was 
observed  of  boiling  the  aqueous  extract  with  acid,  and  rendering 
alkaline  before  adding  the  copper  solution.  The  aqueous  ex- 
tract was  agitated  with  acetic  ether  and  a  distinctly  crystalline 
residue  separated.  Under  the  miscroscope  these  crystals  were 
white,  needle-shaped,  and  arranged  in  bundles.  They  did  not 
respond  to  tests  for  gallic  acid.  Potash  solution  formed  a 
yellow  mixture  with  the  crystals.  The  color  was  discharged 
by  a  drop  of  hydrochloric  acid.  Chloroform  did  not  dissolve 
any  substance  from  the  ethereal  residue.  The  ethereal  residue 
was  treated  with  acidulated  water  and  tested  negatively  for 
alkaloids. 

The  ethereal  residue  insoluble  in  water  was  treated  with 
alcohol.  The  an^unt  of  substances  insoluble  in  water,  and 
soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol,  was  0.15  per  cent.  The  alcoholic 
solution  was  evaporated,  and  the  residue  was  crystalline  in 
structure.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  imperfectly  dissolved 
it,  and  gave  a  reddish-yellow  color  reaction;  acetic  ether  dis- 
colored the  solution.  The  alcoholic  residue  was  insoluble  in 
acetic  ether,  cold  and  boiling  aqueous  alkalies;  soluble  in 
chloroform.  It  saponified  with  alcoholic  soda. 

The  amount  of  the  ethereal  residue  insoluble  in  water  and 
alcohol  was  0.65  per  cent.  It  was  not  soluble  in  alcoholic  or 
aqueous  soda.  This  would  indicate  a  resin  anhydride.  Con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  gave  no  color  reaction  with  it;  and 
a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  cane  sugar  dissolved  the 
residue. 

The  ethereal  residue,  on  treating  with  cold  ether,  was  not 
entirely  soluble  in  it.  It  was  soluble  in  chloroform,  benzole, 
and  carbon  di-sulphide;  incompletely  soluble  in  cold  alcohol, 
and  insoluble  in  amyl  alcohol.  The  ethereal  residue  was  treated 
with  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  in  which  it  was  slightly  soluble.  A 
turbidity  formed  in  the  alcoholic  solution  on  adding  lead  ace- 
tate, ferric  chloride,  ammonium  hydrate,  and  sulphuric  acid; 


STUDY   OF   YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA          141 

it  did  not  clear  up  on  warming.  Hydrochloric  acid  made  a 
muddy  mixture  with  the  alcoholic  solution.  The  ethereal  resi- 
due was  not  entirely  soluble  in  acetic  ether;  the  latter  sepa- 
rated coloring  matter  from  it.  The  ethereal  residue  insoluble 
in  acetic  ether  and  freed  from  coloring  matter  (chlorophyll) 
was  a  resinous  substance.  It  melted  at  80°  C.  The  resin  was 
boiled  with  absolute  alcohol,  and  on  throwing  the  alcoholic 
solution  into  cold  water  it  was  precipitated  as  a  white  cloud. 
It  was  not  saponified. 

Extract  (4),  Yellow  Base  of  Leaf. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  petroleum  spirit  macera- 
tion was  dried  and  extracted  with  stronger  ether.  The  ether 
extract  was  a  turbid  yellow  liquid,  slightly  acid  in  reaction. 
On  evaporating  the  ethereal  extract  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture a  reddish-yellow  granular  solid  remained.  It  melted  at 
79°  C.  For  the  determination  of  total  solids  extracted,  a  defi- 
nite volume  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed. 

I. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Ethereal  residue  dried  at  100°  C 1.7  per  cent,  of  solids. 

"    110°  C 1.7      "         "      " 

oo     "         "    loss. 

The  ethereal  residue  was  treated  successively  with  distilled 
water,  alcohol,  and  ether. 

II. 

Substances  soluble  in  ether  and  water 0.8   per  cent. 

"       "  ether  and  alcohol 0.4 

"       "   water  and  alcohol 0.5 

Total  solids  1.7         " 

The  aqueous  extract  gave  a  neutral  reaction  with  litmus. 
Negative  results  followed  examination  for  tannin,  gallic  acid, 
glucosides,  alkaloids,  and  any  compounds  containing  nitrogen. 


142 


PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


The  ethereal  residue  (the  residue  insoluble  in  water)  was  an 
opaque,  reddish-yellow  colored  substance,  and  was  identified 
as  a  resin.  It  melted  at  79°  C.  It  was  insoluble  in  ether,  ben- 
zole, chloroform,  and  acetic  ether;  incompletely  soluble  in  cold 
absolute  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol,  carbon  di- sulphide,  and  oil  of 
turpentine.  It  was  soluble  in  aqueous  and  alcoholic  soda.  On 
boiling  with  them,  it  was  saponified.  Concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  dissolved  the  resin  and  colored  it  a  yellowish  brown. 
Chloroform  formed  a  turbid  mixture  with  the  acid  solution. 
The  action  of  strong  nitric  acid  on  the  resin  was  slow.  The 
resin  was  incompletely  soluble  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol.  Lead 
acetate  gave  a  cloudliness  with  the  alcoholic  solution  which 
increased  on  boiling.  Ferric  chloride  thickened  the  alcoholic 
solution,  and  on  boiling  it  gave  a  yellow  precipitate  which 
was  insoluble  in  acids,  alkalies,  absolute  alcohol,  and  acetic 
ether.  The  chloroform  extract  gave  no  coloration  with  bro- 
mine solution. 


SUMMARY  II.    ETHEREAL  EXTRACTS 


Solids 
extracted. 

Character 
of  residue. 

1* 

in 

&<gs 

l.i 

n 

Specific 
gravity. 

Substances 
soluble  in 
ether  and 
water. 

Substances 
soluble  in 
alcohol  and 
water. 

Substances 
soluble  only 
in  ether. 

i.  Bark  of  the 
root  .... 

3  16% 

acid 

70°  C. 

traces 

2.  Wood    of 

r  70% 

70°  C 

3.  Green  leaf 
4.   Yellow 
base  of  leaf 

1.25% 

1.70% 

1  resin     ) 
chloro-  [ 
phyll     ) 
resin 

slightly  acid 
slightly  acid 

80°  C. 
79°  C. 



o-34% 
0.80% 

0.15% 
0.40% 

0.65% 
0.50% 

The  residues  from  the  ether  extracts  (i)  and  (2)  of  the  bark 
and  of  the  wood  of  the  root  contained  resins  which  were 
identified  as  the  same  compound.  They  correspond  in  color, 
melting-point,  specific  gravity,  solubilities,  and  reactions.  The 
resin  is  a  transparent,  ruby-colored  substance,  crystalline  in 
structure,  and  of  a  softer  consistency  than  ordinary  resin. 
It  was  examined  by  Hirschsohn's  scheme.1  It  differed  from 
all  described  resins  in  its  reactions  with  the  reagents  used  to 
identify  them.  It  is  proposed  to  name  it  yuccal.2 

1  Loc.  tit.  *  See  foot-note,  ether  extract  (2). 


STUDY   OF   YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         143 

Yuccal  is  imperfectly  soluble  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol;  solu- 
ble in  boiling  absolute  alcohol,  in  cold  ether,  and  amyl  alco- 
hol; not  appreciably  soluble  in  chloroform,  benzole,  carbon 
di-sulphide,  or  alcoholic  ammonia.  Cold  acetic  ether  dissolved 
the  coloring  matter  from  the  resin,  leaving  a  colorless  solid. 
Hot  acetic  ether  dissolved  it  perfectly.  Yuccal  when  heated 
on  platinum  foil  gave  off  as  it  burned  a  pleasant  and  aromatic 
odor.  Tests  failed  to  show  the  presence  of  benzoic  or  cin- 
namic  acids.  A  blood-red  color  reaction  was  obtained  by  warm- 
ing yuccal  with  a  crystal  of  ammonium  molybdate  and  a  few 
drops  of  strong  nitric  acid.  Warm  dilute  nitric  acid  dissolved 
the  resin,  colorless;  cold  nitric  acid  gave  a  brownish-green 
color  reaction.  Yuccal  was  mixed  with  concentrated  nitric 
acid  and  heated.  After  some  time  had  passed,  an  energetic 
reaction  occurred  and  nitrous  fumes  were  given  off.  A  yel- 
lowish-brown residue  was  one  of  the  products  of  the  reaction. 
This  residue  was  almost  insoluble  in  water  or  acids.  It  was 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  potassium  hydrate.1 

As  the  ether  extracts  (i)  and  (2)  were  concentrated,  white 
needle-shaped  crystals  appeared  floating  in  the  liquids,  whose 
physical  structure,  and  insolubility  in  water  and  acetic  ether, 
suggested  identical  substances.  The  crystals  separated  from 
yuccal  by  the  lead  acetate  method,  already  described,  have 
not  been  sufficiently  studied  to  identify  them  with  the  white 
needle-shaped  crystals  in  the  ether  extracts  nor  with  any 
class  of  chemical  compounds.  However,  the  absence  of  gallic 
acid,  glucosides,  and  alkaloids  in  the  aqueous  extracts  from 
ethereal  residues,  would  show  that  the  crystals  separated  from 
yuccal  are  a  constituent  part  of  the  resin. 

The  experiments  with  spirit  of  different  strengths  are  only 
of  value,  as  far  as  they  were  carried  out,  in  showing  the  possi- 
bility of  separating  the  resin  into  distinct  parts.2 

Tannin  was  not  present  in  these  ethereal  extracts. 

Ethereal  extract  (3)  was  green-colored  and  fluorescent  from 

1  See  foot-note  3,  ether  extract  (2). 

2  The  amount  of  material  on  which  these  experiments,  as  well  as  others 
described  in  this  paper,  were  tried,  was  too  small  in  quantity  for  me  to, obtain 
more  conclusive  results.    The  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  will  serve 
as  a  guide  in  future  investigations. 


i44       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

the  chlorophyll  of  the  leaves.  On  evaporating,  the  ethereal 
residue  was  amorphous  and  of  a  green  color.  The  aqueous 
extract  obtained  from  treating  this  ethereal  residue  was  neutral 
in  reaction  and  bitter  to  the  taste.  It  contained  no  gallic 
acid,  tannin,  or  glucosides.  It  was  agitated  with  acetic  ether, 
and  the  solvent  removed  a  solid,  which  under  the  microscope 
proved  to  be  white-needled  shape  crystals  arranged  in  bundles. 
Potash  solution  formed  a  yellow-colored  mixture  with  the 
crystals  ;  hydrochloric  acid  discharged  the  color.  The  subject 
has  been  too  little  studied  to  state  definitely  if  these  crystals 
are  or  are  not  identical  with  the  crystals  found  in  the  ethereal 
extracts  (i)  and  (2).  But  it  should  be  noted,  that  unless  the 
crystals  from  ethereal  extract  (3)  are  brought  into  aqueous 
solution  mechanically  by  some  compound  not  present  in  ethereal 
extracts  (i)  and  (2),  the  indications  are  in  favor  of  the  crys- 
tals from  (3)  not  being  identical  with  them;  for  the  crystals 
from  (i)  and  (2)  were  insoluble  in  water  and  not  removed  by 
acetic  ether. 

The  ethereal  residue  was  treated  with  acidulated  water  and 
tested  negatively  for  alkaloids. 

The  ethereal  residue  insoluble  in  water  was  a  mixture  of 
two  resins  (i)  and  (2).  The  one  (i)  was  dissolved  by  abso- 
lute alcohol,  the  other  (2)  was  mostly  soluble  in  ether.  The 
alcoholic  residue  was  crystalline.  It  was  insoluble  in  acetic 
ether,  but  was  saponified  with  alcoholic  soda.  The  ether  resi- 
due was  a  resin  anhydride;  it  was  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and 
in  alcoholic  or  aqueous  alkalies. 

The  amorphous  and  green-colored  ethereal  residue  was  not 
entirely  redissolved  by  cold  ether.  It  was  soluble  in  chloro- 
form, benzole,  and  carbon  di-sulphide;  incompletely  soluble 
in  cold  alcohol,  and  insoluble  in  amyl  alcohol.  It  was  slightly 
soluble  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol  and  in  acetic  ether.  The  latter 
separated  the  green  coloring  matter  from  it.  The  resinous 
mass  insoluble  in  acetic  ether  melted  at  80°  C.  It  was  not 
saponified.  This  resinous  mass  insoluble  in  acetic  ether  is  a 
mixture  of  the  two  resins  just  described  (i)  and  (2).  It  was 
noticeable  that  the  resinous  mass  was  not  saponified.  Resin 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTlFOLIA         145 

(1)  was  saponified.    Resin  (2)  did  not  saponify,  and  as  this 
resin  exceeded  in  amount  by  0.5  per  cent,  resin  (i),  it  would 
show  that  a  certain  percentage  of  resin  anhydride  in  a  mix- 
ture of  two  resins  forbids  the  saponification  of  the  mixture. 

It  was  not  determined  if  the  crystals  dissolved  by  water 
and  separated  by  acetic  ether  were  a  part  of  resin  (i)  or  resin 

(2)  or  an  independent  compound. 

Ethereal  extract  (4)  was  a  turbid  yellow  liquid.  On  evapo- 
rating, a  reddish-yellow  granular  solid  remained.  The  extract 
from  the  aqueous  treatment  was  tested  with  negative  results 
for  tannin,  gallic  acid,  glucosides,  and  alkaloids.  The  ethe- 
real residue  insoluble  in  water  was  identified  as  a  resin.  It 
was  soluble  in  ether,  benzole,  chloroform,  and  acetic  ether; 
incompletely  soluble  in  cold  absolute  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol, 
carbon  di-sulphide,  and  oil  of  turpentine.  It  was  saponified. 
A  resin  was  extracted  by  boiling  absolute  alcohol  from  the 
residual  powder  of  the  leaves  (the  yellow  base)  which  was 
identified  as  the  same  resin,  and  the  name  of  pyrophaeal1  was 
proposed  for  it. 

I.  Resins  (i)  and  (2)  are  identical  substances  (yuccal). 

II.  Ethereal  residue  (3)  is  a  mixture  of  two  resins,  and  a 
crystalline  principle  soluble  in  water. 

III.  Resin  (4),  pyrophaeal,  is  identical  with  a  resin  found 
in  alcoholic  extract  (4). 

ALCOHOLIC  EXTRACTS 

Extract  (i),  Bark  of  the  Root. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  ether  extraction  was  dried, 
and  replaced  in  the  percolator.  The  maceration  was  con- 
ducted at  the  boiling  temperature  of  alcohol.  Squibb's  stronger 
alcohol  was  used.  A  dark  red-colored  liquid  was  extracted. 
It  was  neutral  in  reaction  with  litmus.  The  alcoholic  extract 
was  evaporated  in  a  current  of  carbonic  acid.  The  residue 
was  non-crystalline  and  of  a  red  color.  A  definite  volume  of 
the  alcoholic  extract  was  evaporated,  dried  until  the  weight 

1  "Pyrophaeal,"  Science,  September  n,  1885. 


146       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

remained  constant,  and  the  residue  incinerated  in  a  weighed 
platinum  dish  and  the  ash  estimated. 

I. 


TOTAL   SOLIDS. 

Alcoholic  residue  dried  at  100°  C 9.25  per  cent. 

"     no°C 9.25       " 

"      ash 0.2 

The  alcoholic  residue  was  treated  with  distilled  water,  and 
a  definite  volume  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  dried,  and 
weighed.  The  alcoholic  residue  insoluble  in  water  was  treated 
with  water  containing  ammonia  (one  part  in  fifty).  This 
ammoniacal  extract  was  evaporated  with  excess  of  acetic  acid, 
and  the  residue  rinsed  with  a  little  water  on  a  filter,  dried, 
and  weighed.  The  dried  aqueous  extract  insoluble  in  ammonia 
was  then  estimated. 

II. 

Distilled  water  residue 3.22  per  cent. 

Ammonia      "          "       5.43       " 

Insoluble      "         "  ..0.60       " 


Total  solids 9.25 

The  aqueous  extract  from  alcoholic  residue  was  studied  as 
follows:  It  was  not  colored  by  a  ferroso-ferric  salt  nor  pre- 
cipitated by  gelatine  and  alum  solutions,  showing  absence  of 
gallic  acid  and  tannin.  A  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was 
acidified  with  sulphuric  acid  and  agitated  successively  with 
petroleum  spirit,  benzole,  chloroform,  and  amyl  alcohol.  The 
acidified  liquid  was  rendered  alkaline  by  ammonia  and  agitated 
with  the  solvents  in  the  same  order.  Petroleum  spirit  removed 
from  the  acidified  solution  traces  of  an  amorphous  residue, 
soluble  in  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda.  Benzole  and  chloro- 
form separated  no  substances  from  the  solution.  As  the  amyl 
alcohol  solution  was  evaporating,  white  needle-shaped  crys- 
tals were  seen  floating  in  the  liquid.  On  drying  the  residue 


STUDY   OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         147 

they  were  decomposed  and  melted,  leaving  a  dark-colored 
liquid.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  dry  these  crystals,  with- 
out success.  A  few  of  the  crystals  were  recovered  from  the 
solution,  and  tested  for  alkaloids;  no  reactions  were  obtained 
with  the  usual  reagents  for  them. 

Glucose  was  estimated  from  the  aqueous  extract.  The  liquid 
was  heated  over  a  water  bath  with  Fehling's  solution,  and  the  pre- 
cipitated red  cuprous  oxide  was  thrown  upon  a  weighed  filter, 
dried,  and  incinerated.  The  glucose  was  estimated  gravimetri- 
cally  by  calculating  the  amount  of  cupric  oxide.  It  yielded 
0.619  Per  cent-  A  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  boiled 
with  acid,  neutralized,  and  heated  over  a  water  bath  with  Feh- 
ling's solution  to  calculate,  by  difference,  saccharose  or  other 
reducible  compounds,  and  by  this  method  0.18  per  cent,  was 
obtained. 

The  alcoholic  extract  was  described  as  being  deeply  colored. 
This  coloring  principle  *  was  completely  precipitated  by  sub- 
acetate  of  lead.  The  lead  precipitate  was  collected  on  a 
filter,  suspended  in  water,  and  decomposed  by  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  freed  from  all  odor.  It  was 
allowed  to  evaporate  slowly  over  sulphuric  acid.  The  residue 
was  a  brownish-gray  mass,  interspersed  with  fine  crystals 
which  radiated  from  a  nucleus.  The  mass  was  weighed  and 
gave  3.27  per  cent,  of  solids.  Another  portion  of  the  alcoholic 
extract  was  agitated  with  water  and  acetic  ether.  The  color- 
ing matter  was  taken  up  by  the  acetic  ether,  and  on  evapo- 
rating a  red-colored  substance  was  recovered.  It  was  dried 
and  weighed,  yielding  2.2  per  cent.  This  red-colored  residue 
was  perfectly  soluble  in  cold  water.  This  solution  was  tested 
with  the  following  reagents:  It  gave  with  potassium  bichro- 
mate a  creamy-colored  precipitate;  ferric  chloride,  a  yellow- 
ish-green precipitate;  ferrous  sulphate,  a  reddish-brown  pre- 
cipitate; stannous  chloride,  no  precipitate,  a  yellow  cloudy 
liquid;  alum,  a  cloudy  solution;  neutral  acetate  of  lead,  a 
slight  precipitate.  The  red  color  of  the  coloring  matter  was 
brought  out  on  addition  of  alkalies.  It  was  destroyed  by 
acids. 

1  "A  Red  Crystalline  Coloring  Matter,"  Science,  September  n,  1885. 


148       PLANT   AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Extract  (2),  Wood  0}  the  Root. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  ether  treatment  was  dried 
and  macerated  with  Squibb's  stronger  alcohol.  The  alcoholic 
extract  was  neutral  in  reaction;  when  warm  it  was  a  clear 
reddish-golden  colored  liquid.  On  cooling,  a  creamy-white 
solid  settled  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask.  This  substance  was 
soluble  in  water,  and  was  identified  as  saponin  by  the  usual 
tests  for  it.  A  definite  volume  of  the  alcoholic  extract  was 
evaporated  in  a  current  of  carbonic  acid,  dried,  and  weighed. 
The  residue  was  incinerated  in  a  weighed  platinum  crucible 
for  the  ash  determination. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Alcoholic  residue  dried  at  100°  C 14.3  per  cent. 

"     no0  C 14-3        " 

ash oo.i        " 

The  alcoholic  residue  was  treated  with  cold  water  in  which 
it  was  soluble.  A  cloudy  solution  was  formed,  and  on  shak- 
ing, it  became  frothy,  and  presented  the  appearance  of  an 
emulsion.  It  was  allowed  to  stand  for  several  days  to  see  if 
the  resinous  matter  separated,  but  the  emulsion  was  perma- 
nent, as  no  separation  had  taken  place.  The  emulsified  liquid 
was  agitated  with  acetic  ether,  and  this  solvent  readily  sepa- 
rated most  of  the  resin  from  the  aqueous  portion.  The  water 
extract  was  then  evaporated  to  dryness  and  redissolved  in 
water.  Gelatine  and  alum  solution  did  not  precipitate  the  ex- 
tract, showing  absence  of  tannin;  no  coloration  with  iron 
salts,  absence  of  gallic  acid;  negative  results  followed  tests  for 
alkaloids;  the  aqueous  extract  was  boiled  with  potash  and 
no  ammonia  fumes  were  formed;  adding  gold  chloride  and 
potassio-mercuric  iodide  solutions  to  the  extract  gave  no  pre- 
cipitate. A  measured  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was 
acidified  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  agitated  successively  with 
petroleum  spirit,  benzole,  and  chloroform.  The  solvents  were 
evaporated;  petroleum  spirit  removed  o.oi  per  cent,  of  a  resin- 
ous substance,  imperfectly  soluble  in  cold  and  boiling  aqueous 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         149 

alkalies,  dissolved  by  sulphuric  acid  with  a  red  coloration; 
chloroform  left  a  brownish  residue  which,  on  weighing,  yielded 
0.4  per  cent.  This  residue  was  moistened  with  a  few  drops 
of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  changed  to  a  red-violet 
color  characteristic  of  saponin. 

A  certain  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  rendered  alka- 
line, and  heated  over  a  water  bath  with  Fehling's  solution. 
The  precipitated  copper  was  collected  on  a  weighed  filter, 
dried,  and  incinerated,  and  the  glucose  estimated  gravimetri- 
cally  from  it.  It  yielded  1.592  per  cent.  Another  portion  of 
the  aqueous  extract  was  acidified,  boiled,  and  potash  added 
until  the  solution  was  alkaline  to  litmus  paper;  then  the  liquid 
was  mixed  with  Fehling's  solution  and  heated  over  a  water 
bath.  The  percentage  of  saccharose  or  other  substances  which 
reduced  the  copper  was  calculated  by  difference.  It  amounted 
to  0.929  per  cent. 

The  resin  separated  by  acetic  ether  was  an  opaque  sub- 
stance, greenish-yellow  in  color,,  and  insoluble  in  ether.  The 
resin  was  dissolved  in  water  and  frothed  on  shaking.  The 
emulsion  in  this  case  was  not  quite  so  permanent,  as  a  slight 
resinous  sediment  settled  after  a  time,  possibly  due  to  changes 
in  the  resin  through  oxidation. 

Extract  (3),  the  Green  part  of  the  Leaf. 

The  dried  residual  powder  was  macerated  by  the  aid  of 
heat  with  Squibb' s  stronger  alcohol.  When  warm  the  alco- 
holic extract  was  clear,  but  on  cooling  the  solution  became 
cloudy,  and  a  creamy-white  fine  precipitate  settled.  The  alco- 
holic extract  was  neutral  in  reaction.  It  was  evaporated  in  a 
current  of  carbonic  acid,  dried,  and  weighed.  A  certain  part 
of  the  residue  was  incinerated  and  the  ash  determined. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Alcoholic  residue  dried  at  100°  C 3.80  per  cent. 

"       110°  C 3.80 

"        ash 0.15        " 

The  alcoholic  residue  was  treated  with  cold  distilled  water. 


i5o        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

It  had  a  slightly  acid  reaction  with  litmus.  An  emulsion  was 
formed  on  the  addition  of  water  to  the  alcoholic  residue.  A 
measured  quantity  of  it  was  evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed. 
It  amounted  to  3.4  per  cent.,  0.4  per  cent,  of  the  alcoholic 
residue  was  insoluble  in  water.  Tannin,  gallic  acid,  and  alka- 
loids were  tested  for  and  with  negative  results. 

The  liquid  from  the  aqueous  treatment  of  the  alcoholic  resi- 
due was  rendered  alkaline,  and  boiled  with  Fehling's  solu- 
tion, and  there  was  no  reduction.  Boettger's  bismuth  test  was 
also  tried  and  with  negative  results.  The  aqueous  portion 
was  boiled  with  acid  and  examined  in  the  usual  way  for  glu- 
cosides;  the  results  were  negative. 

One  volume  of  the  aqueous  solution  was  mixed  with  three 
volumes  of  stronger  alcohol.  It  was  placed  on  ice,  and  after 
some  time  a  white  precipitate  formed.  The  precipitate  was 
collected  and  dissolved  in  water.  It  frothed  on  shaking.  On 
addition  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  baryta,  a  creamy- 
white  precipitate  of  saponin-baryta  was  obtained.  Sulphuric 
acid  gave  the  usual  red- violet  color  reaction  with  the  precipi- 
tate from  the  alcoholic  aqueous  solution. 

The  method  of  successive  agitation  of  an  aqueous  extract 
with  solvents  already  described  was  followed.  Petroleum 
spirit  on  evaporating  left  a  resinous  substance.  The  residue 
separated  by  chloroform  from  an  acidified  solution  was  a 
brownish-colored  substance.  It  was  soluble  in  water,  and 
frothed  on  shaking.  It  was  colored  red- violet  by  sulphuric  acid, 
and  the  aqueous  solution  was  precipitated  by  barium  hydrate. 
Chloroform  separated  a  brownish  solid  from  an  alkaline  aque- 
ous solution.  It  was  precipitated  by  barium,  colored  red- 
violet  by  sulphuric  acid,  and  its  aqueous  solution  frothed  on 
shaking.  This  brownish  residue  was  identified  as  saponin. 

Extract  (4),  the  Yellow  Base  of  the  Leaf. 

The  residual  powder,  dried  from  all  traces  of  ether,  was 
macerated  with  hot  alcohol.  The  alcoholic  extract  was  a  cur- 
rant-colored liquid,  and  slightly  acid  in  reaction.  The  liquid 
became  clear  on  standing,  and  a  creamy-white  solid,  identi- 


STUDY   OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         151 

fied  as  saponin,  separated  from  it.  The  alcoholic  extract  was 
evaporated,  dried  and  weighed,  and  the  ash  of  the  residue 
was  estimated. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Alcoholic  residue  dried  at  100°  C 4.30  per  cent. 

"       no0  C 4-30 

"      ash 0.05 

The  alcoholic  residue  was  treated  with  cold  distilled  water. 
The  solution  was  slightly  colored,  and  faintly  acid  in  reac- 
tion. The  absence  of  gallic  acid,  tannin,  and  alkaloids  was 
determined  by  negative  results  with  iron  salts,  gelatine,  and 
alum  solution,  gold  chloride,  and  potassio-mercuric  solutions. 
Acetate  of  lead  caused  no  precipitation.  Fehling's  solution 
detected  a  trace  of  glucose.  V  *£* 

An  imperfect  emulsion  formed  on  aSySpg-  water  to  the  alco- 
holic residue.  Upon  standing,  the  rej^n  /settled;  the  liquid 
was  filtered  several  times,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  resin 
collected.  It  was  an  opaque  reddish-yellow-colored  substance. 
It  had  the  same  melting-point  (79°  C.),  solubilities,  and  phys- 
ical appearance  as  the  resin  of  ether  extract  (4).  The  resin 
was  examined  by  Hirschsohn's  scheme.  It  differed  in  charac- 
ter from  the  many  resins  described  by  that  author,  and  it 
is  proposed  to  name  it  pyrophaeal.1 

Pyrophaeal  was  slightly  soluble  in  ether,  and  95  per  cent, 
alcohol;  soluble  in  benzole,  chloroform,  and  acetic  ether;  in- 
completely soluble  in  cold  absolute  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol, 
carbon  di-sulphide,  and  oil  of  turpentine.  It  was  saponified 
with  aqueous  and  alcoholic  soda.  The  ethereal  resin  solution 
was  cloudy.  The  alcoholic  resin  solution  gave  a  precipitate 
with  lead  acetate  which  did  not  disappear  on  boiling;  ferric 
chloride  and  aqueous  ammonia  formed  turbid  mixtures  with 
it.  The  chloroform  resin  solution  was  not  affected  by  bromine 
solution.  The  petroleum- ether-resin  solution  turned  to  a  tur- 
bid mixture  on  adding  iodine  solution.  Alcohol  containing 
hydrochloric  acid  was  not  colored  by  the  resin.  Sulphuric 
acid  and  alcohol  gave  a  turbid  brown  mixture  with  it,  and 

*  "Pyrophaeal,"  Science,  September  n,  1885. 


iS2        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

sodium  carbonate  solution  was  colored  pale  brown  when  cold 
or  on  warming. 


SUMMARY  III.     ALCOHOLIC  EXTRACTS 


Quantitative 

Quantita- 

estimation 

Solids  extracted. 

Character 
of  residue. 

Reaction 
with  lit- 

tive   esti- 
mation of 

of  saccharose 
or  other  re- 

mus* 

glucose. 

ducible  com- 

pounds. 

(red  coloring) 

i.  Bark  of  the  root.  .. 

9.25  %  0.20%  ash 

\    matter 

neutral 

0.619% 

0.180% 

(crystalline   ) 

2.  Wood  of  the  root.. 
3.  Green  leaf  

14.30  %  o.io  %  " 
3.80  %  0.15  %  " 

resm,  saponin 
resins,        " 

neutral 
neutral 

1.592% 
none 

0.929% 
none 

slightly 

4.  Yellow  base  of  leaf 

4.30  %  0.05  %  " 

resin,          " 

•   t 

acid 

traces 

traces 

Extracts  (i). 

My  attention  was  not  directed  to  the  presence  of  saponin 
in  extract  (i),  for  the  characteristic  properties  which  it  im- 
parted to  extracts  (2),  (3),  and  (4)  were  absent;  but  it  was 
evident  that  saponin  was  present  in  the  bark,  for  on  boiling 
the  latter  in  distilled  water,  the  presence  of  the  compound  was 
indicated.  The  solution  frothed  on  shaking,  and  by  adding 
a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  baryta,  saponin-baryta  was 
precipitated.1 

A  coloring  matter2  contained  in  the  bark  was  extracted, 
and  imparted  to  the  alcoholic  extract  a  brilliant  red  color.  It 
was  precipitated  by  sub- acetate  of  lead,  and  the  lead  precipi- 
tate suspended  in  water  and  decomposed  by  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  The  lead  sulphide  nitrate  was  evaporated  over  a 
water  bath  until  the  odor  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  was  ex- 
pelled, and  the  concentrated  liquid  was  placed  over  sulphuric 
acid  to  evaporate  slowly.  A  crystalline  residue  was  obtained. 
On  addition  of  alkalies  to  the  colorless  lead  sulphide  nitrate 
the  red  color  of  the  original  solution  was  developed.  Acid  dis- 
discharged  the  color.  Acetic  ether  took  up  the  red  colored 
substance.  The  acetic  ether  residue  was  a  red  uniform  solid, 

1  "Saponin  in  the  Bark  of   Yucca  Angustifolia"  Science,  September  u, 
1885. 

2  "A  Red  Crystalline  Coloring  Matter,"  Science,  September  n,  1885. 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA        153 

and  soluble  in  water.  It  was  precipitated  from  the  aqueous 
solution  by  sub-acetate  of  lead,  potassium  bichromate,  ferric 
chloride,  ferrous  sulphate,  and  it  was  clouded  by  alum,  and 
stannous  chloride  solutions. 

Tannin,  gallic  acid,  and  alkaloids  were  absent. 

Amyl  alcohol  separated  from  the  acidified  aqueous  extract 
white  needle-shaped  crystals.  It  was  not  determined  if  these 
crystals  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  coloring  matter. 

Extracts  (2),  (3),  and  (4). 

Extracts  (2)  and  (3)  when  warm  were  clear,  and  on  cool- 
ing a  creamy- white  solid  separated.  Extract  (4),  if  warmed, 
was  turbid,  and  as  the  liquid  cooled,  a  creamy- white  substance 
remained  at  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  and  the  supernatant  fluid 
became  clear.  This  creamy-white  substance  was  identified 
in  each  of  the  extracts  as  saponin.1 

The  results  following  an  aqueous  treatment  of  alcoholic 
residues  (2)  and  (3),  were  noticeable.  The  residues  were  dis- 
solved, and  by  shaking  the  mixtures,  emulsified.  This  emul- 
sion was  permanent,  as  no  resinous  matter  separated  on  stand- 
ing several  days.  The  emulsion  was  agitated  with  acetic  ether, 
and  by  this  means  most  of  the  resin  and  saponin  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  aqueous  portion.  The  saponin  was  removed 
mechanically  with  the  resin,  as  it  is  almost  insoluble  in  acetic 
ether.  The  resin-saponin  mass  was  insoluble  in  ether,  solu- 
ble in  water.  The  solution  frothed  on  shaking  and  emulsi- 
fied, but  the  emulsion  was  not  so  permanent  as  in  the  first  case, 
for  a  resinous  sediment  settled  after  a  time.  Chloroform  sepa- 
rated saponin  from  an  acidified  aqueous  solution,  and  also 
from  an  alkaline  aqueous  solution  of  the  residues  ;  and  the 
red-violet  saponin  reaction  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
was  obtained. 

The  solubility  in  water  of  the  alcoholic  residues  (2),  (3),  and 
(4),  and  the  resulting  emulsion  were  unusual,  and  explicable 

1  "Saponin  in  the  Wood  of  the  Root  and  Leaves,"  Science,  September  n, 
1885. 


154       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

by  the  facts  collected  from  a  series  of  experiments  with  resins 
and  saponin,  since  I  had  successfully  emulsified  resins  with 
aqueous  and  alcoholic  saponin  solutions.1 

By  hot  alcoholic  treatment  the  yucca  yielded  a  residue  of 
saponin  and  resin  which  became  emulsified  on  the  addition 
of  water,  giving  results  identical  with  those  of  the  resins  above 
described.2 

Extract  (4)  contained  a  resin.  It  was  an  opaque  reddish- 
yellow  colored  substance,  and  it  differed,  by  its  reactions, 
from  the  many  resin  classes  given  in  Hirschsohn's  scheme. 
It  is  proposed  to  name  it  pyrophaeal.3  A  resin  having  the  same 
melting-point,  solubilities,  physical  appearance,  and  chemical 
reactions  was  discovered  in  the  ethereal  extract  (4).  It  was 
identified  as  the  same  compound  for  which  the  name  pyro- 
phaeal is  proposed. 

Tannin,  gallic  acid,  and  alkaloids  were  not  detected  in  ex- 
tracts (2),  (3),  and  (4).  In  extract  (3)  glucose  was  not  found. 


The  Solids  of  the  Alcoholic  Extracts. 

I.  A  red  coloring  matter  (crystalline). 
II.  A  new  resin  (yuccal).4 

III.  A  second  new  resin  (pyrophaeal).4 

IV.  A  mixture  of  a  crystalline  resin  and  a  resin  anhydride. 
V.  Saponin.4 

VI.  Glucose,  and  saccharose  or  other  reducible  compounds. 
VII.  Ash. 

1  The  same  kinds  of  resins  were  used  in  these  experiments  as  in  those  with 
which  I  determined  the  solubility  of  resins  in  acetic  ether.    See  foot-note  2, 
ethereal  extract  (2). 

2  It  was  not  until  a  later  date  following  the  time  of  these  experiments  that 
I  found  a  reference  to  saponin-resin  emulsion  in  L'Officine  ou  Repertoire  Gene- 
ral de  Pharmacie  Pratique,  par  Dorvault,  huitieme  Edition,  Paris,  1872,  p. 
81 6.  Also  refer  to  examination  of  the  Yucca  angustifolia,  by  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott, 
published  in  the  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  Philadelphia,  September  12, 
1885,  p.  301. 

3  "Pyrophaeal,"  loc.  cit. 

4  Science,  September  n,  1885,  p.  210,  extract  of  a  paper  on  "  The  Chemical 
Study  of  Yucca  Angustifolia,"  by  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott. 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         155 

AQUEOUS  EXTRACTS 

Extract  (i),  Bark  of  the  Root. 

The  residual  powder  was  thoroughly  dried  from  alcohol. 
It  was  returned  to  the  percolator,  and  cold  distilled  water 
added  until  a  definite  amount  had  been  used.  The  aqueous 
extract  was  dark  colored,  and  of  a  faintly  acid  reaction.  A  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed. 
From  a  known  weight  of  the  aqueous  residue,  the  ash  was 
calculated.  The  incineration  was  conducted  in  a  covered  por- 
celain crucible  of  known  weight. 

TOTAL   SOLIDS. 

Aqueous  residue  dried  between  100°  C  and  110°  C 4.00  per  cent. 

ash 2.65       " 

Gum. 

One  volume  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  mixed  with  two  vol- 
umes of  Squibb' s  stronger  alcohol.  The  mixture  was  kept  in 
a  cool  place  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  precipitate  which 
had  formed  was  collected  on  a  weighed  filter,  washed  with 
66  per  cent,  alcohol,  dried,  and  weighed.  The  precipitate  and 
filter  were  incinerated  in  a  weighed  porcelain  crucible,  and 
the  weight  of  the  filter  being  deducted,  the  percentage  of  ash 
was  determined. 

Weight  of  precipitate  by  stronger  alcohol  yielded 2.0  per  cent. 

ash  yielded 0.2       " 

Another  portion  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  precipitated  by 
stronger  alcohol,  and  the  precipitate  consisted  of  gum  and 
albuminous  substances.  It  was  incompletely  soluble  in  water. 
The  soluble  matter  was  gum ;  it  was  recovered  from  solution 
by  evaporating  the  liquid  to  dryness.  The  gummy  residue 
was  almost  completely  soluble  in  cold  water.  It  was  precipi- 
tated from  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution  by  stronger  alco- 
hol; basic  acetate  of  lead  precipitated  it  as  a  flocculent  preci- 
pitate. Borax  did  not  thicken  the  gum  solution,  and  ferric 


156       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

chloride  and  sodium  chloride  solutions  did  not  precipitate 
it.  The  gum  was  boiled  with  dilute  acid,  and  heated  over  a' 
water  bath  with  Fehling's  solution,  which  it  reduced.  A  few 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  stronger  alcohol  were  mixed 
with  the  concentrated  gum  solution  for  the  separation  of  ara- 
bin.  It  was  not  separated. 

Carbhydrates. 

The  nitrate  and  wash  alcohol  from  the  gum  precipitate 
were  mixed,  and  evaporated  to  a  syrupy  consistency  at  a  tem- 
perature of  70°  to  80°  C.  The  concentrated  solution  was  treated 
with  four  volumes  of  stronger  alcohol,  and  the  resulting  pre- 
cipitate of  carbhydrates  rapidly  filtered  off.  It  was  soluble  in 
water.  It  was  not  precipitated  from  aqueous  solution  by  basic 
acetate  of  lead,  and  by  this  means  it  was  distinguished  from 
vegetable  mucilage.  The  carbhydrates  were  boiled  with  dilute 
acid,  and  the  solution  was  rendered  alkaline,  and  heated  over 
a  water  bath  with  Fehling's  solution.  The  latter  was  reduced. 
The  percentage  of  carbhydrates  as  estimated,  amounted  to 
0.2  per  cent.  An  aqueous  carbhydrate  solution  was  mixed  with 
a  solution  of  barium  in  40  per  cent,  alcohol.  It  yielded  no  pre- 
cipitate. 

Carbhydrate  Filtrate. 

The  carbhydrate  filtrate  was  concentrated  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture in  a  current  of  carbonic  acid  until  the  alcohol  was  dis- 
sipated. The  residue  was  examined  for  glucose,  organic  acids, 
saponin,  and  tannin.  Traces  of  glucose  were  detected  quali- 
tatively by  Fehling's  test;  the  amount  of  cuprous  oxide  pre- 
sent was  too  small  to  estimate  gravimetrically.  A  part  of  the 
carbhydrate  filtrate  residue  was  boiled  with  83  per  cent,  alco- 
hol, and  filtered  while  hot.  On  cooling,  a  precipitate  formed. 
This  precipitate  was  identified  as  saponin.  It  was  almost  in- 
soluble in  stronger  alcohol.  Baryta- water  precipitated  it  from 
aqueous  solution.  Its  aqueous  solutions  frothed  on  shaking. 
When  agitated  with  chloroform  and  on  evaporating  the  chloro- 
form solution,  a  light-colored  residue  was  obtained.  A  few 
drops  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  mixed  with  it  gave  a  red- 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         157 

dish-violet-color  reaction.  Another  portion  of  the  carbhydrate 
filtrate  residue  was  precipitated  with  neutral  acetate  of  lead 
and  filtered.  The  precipitate  was  suspended  in  water,  de- 
composed by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  the  lead  sulphide 
filtrate  evaporated  over  a  water-bath  to  expel  all  odor  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  The  liquid  was  cooled  and  lime-water 
added  until  the  reaction  was  alkaline  to  litmus.  A  turbidity 
formed  when  the  lime-water  was  added  to  the  filtrate,  and 
was  not  entirely  cleared  on  the  addition  of  dilute  acetic  acid. 
A  neutralized  portion  of  the  lead  sulphide  filtrate  gave  a 
yellow  precipitate  with  a  ferrous  salt.  Oxalic  acid  by  these 
tests  was  indicated,  and  possibly  other  vegetable  acids  were 
present  in  the  filtrate.  The  carbhydrate  filtrate  residue  was 
examined  for  tannin,  and  with  a  negative  result.  Calcium 
oxalate  was  separated. 

Extract  (2),  the  Wood  of  the  Root. 

The  powder  used  in  the  alcoholic  maceration  was  thoroughly 
dried,  and  replaced  in  the  percolator.  A  measured  quantity 
of  cold  distilled  water  was  allowed  to  percolate  slowly  through 
the  powder.  The  extract  was  colored,  and  slightly  acid  in  re- 
action. A  definite  volume  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  dried, 
and  weighed.  A  known  weight  of  the  residue  was  incinerated 
in  a  weighed  covered  porcelain  crucible,  and  the  ash  deter- 
mined. The  ash  was  white  and  incompletely  soluble  in  water. 

TOTAL   SOLIDS. 

Aqueous  residue  dried  between  100°  C.  and  110°  C 12.10  per  cent. 

"      ash 1.74       " 

Gum. 

A  certain  quantity  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  mixed  with 
two  volumes  of  stronger  alcohol  (Squibb's).  The  mixture  was 
allowed  to  stand  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  precipitate 
which  formed  was  collected  on  a  weighed  filter.  It  was  dried, 
and  weighed.  The  precipitate  and  filter  were  incinerated  in 


158       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

a  weighed  porcelain-covered  crucible,  and  the  percentage  of 
ash  calculated. 

Weight  of  precipitate  by  stronger  alcohol  yielded 1.70  per  cent. 

"  "         ash  yielded 0.34       " 


Carbhydrates. 

The  nitrate  and  wash-alcohol  from  the  gum  precipitate  were 
concentrated  at  a  low  temperature,  and  the  residue  was  mixed 
with  four  volumes  of  stronger  alcohol.  The  precipitate  was 
rapidly  filtered  off,  and  the  percentage  of  carbhydrates  calcu- 
lated gravimetrically  in  the  usual  way,  from  the  amount  of 
cupric  oxide  reduced  from  Fehling's  solution.  It  yielded  2.75 
per  cent. 

Carbhydrate  Filtrate. 

A  portion,  representing  a  certain  volume  of  the  aqueous 
extract,  of  the  carbhydrate  filtrate  was  evaporated,  dried,  and 
weighed.  It  yielded  7.65  per  cent,  of  the  total  solids  of  the 
aqueous  extract  residue.  A  known  weight  of  the  carbhydrate 
filtrate  residue  was  dissolved  in  water  and  heated  over  a  water 
bath  with  Fehling's  solution,  and  the  amount  of  glucose  pre- 
sent estimated  gravimetrically  from  the  weight  of  the  cupric 
oxide.  It  was  estimated  as  4.47  per  cent.  Another  portion  of 
the  carbhydrate  filtrate  residue  was  boiled  with  83  per  cent,  alco- 
hol. A  precipitate  formed  on  cooling,  which  was  collected  on 
a  weighed  filter,  dried,  and  weighed.  It  yielded  1.98  per  cent. 
The  83  per  cent,  alcohol  precipitate  was  identified  as  saponin 
by  the  usual  tests.  The  carbhydrate  filtrate  residue  was  preci- 
pitated by  acetate  of  lead  and  the  precipitate  examined  qual- 
itatively for  organic  acids.  The  lead  precipitate  was  decom- 
posed by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  filtered,  and  the  filtrate 
concentrated  over  a  water  bath,  and  mixed  with  lime-water 
until  turbid.  The  turbidity  did  not  clear  on  adding  dilute  acetic 
acid. 

The  aqueous  extract  was  examined  for  tannin,  and  with 
negative  results.  Calcium  oxalate  was  present. 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         159 

Extract  (3),  the  Green  Part  of  the  Leaf. 

The  residual  powder  was  dried  from  all  traces  of  alcohol, 
and  cold  distilled  water  was  allowed  to  slowly  percolate  through 
the  powder.  The  extract  was  colored,  and  slightly  acid  in  re- 
action. A  definite  volume  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  dried, 
and  weighed,  and  the  ash  calculated  from  incinerating  a  known 
weight  of  the  residue. 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Aqueous  residue  dried  between  100°  C.  and  110°  C 4.35  per  cent. 

"      ash 0.40        " 

Gum. 

One  volume  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  mixed  with  two 
volumes  of  stronger  alcohol.  The  precipitate  was  collected 
after  twenty-four  hours,  washed  with  66  per  cent,  alcohol, 
dried,  and  weighed.  The  precipitate  and  filter  were  incin- 
erated, and  the  ash  estimated. 

Weight  of  precipitate  by  stronger  alcohol  yielded °-775  per  cent. 

ash  yielded 0.125       " 

Carbhydrates. 

The  gum  filtrate  and  wash  alcohol  were  concentrated  at  a 
low  temperature,  and  the  residual  liquid  mixed  with  four  vol- 
umes of  stronger  alcohol.  The  resulting  precipitate  was  rapidly 
filtered  and  collected.  The  percentage  of  carbhydrates  was 
estimated  gravimetrically  from  a  copper  solution  in  the  usual 
way.  It  amounted  to  0.525  per  cent. 

Carbhydrate  Filtrate. 

The  filtrate  was  evaporated  to  dryness.  A  part  of  the  resi- 
due was  boiled  with  83  per  cent,  alcohol.  On  cooling,  a  pre- 
cipitate formed.  It  was  identified  by  the  usual  tests  as  saponin. 
Another  portion  of  the  residue  was  precipitated  with  basic 
acetate  of  lead.  The  lead  precipitate  was  decomposed  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  the  solution  filtered,  and  the  filtrate  evap- 


160        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

orated  over  a  water-bath  until  all  odor  of  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen was  dissipated.  A  part  of  the  lead  sulphide  nitrate  was 
mixed  with  lime-water,  and  a  precipitate  formed  not  com- 
pletely dissolved  by  acetic  acid.  The  remainder  of  the  lead 
sulphide  nitrate  was  allowed  to  evaporate  over  sulphuric  acid. 
The  residue  consisted  of  a  mass  of  fine  crystals  radiating  from 
a  centre.1 

The  crystals  gave  a  very  acid  reaction  when  placed  on  moist- 
ened blue  litmus  paper.  They  turned  black  and  left  a  residue 
when  heated  on  platinum  foil,  and  the  residue  was  slowly 
dissolved  by  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  The  quantity  of  resi- 
due was  very  small,  and  no  effervescence  was  observed.  The 
melting-point  of  the  crystals  was  taken.  A  small  quantity  was 
placed  in  a  tube  with  thin  walls,  and  gradually  heated;  at 
150°  C.  the  substance  sublimed,  leaving  a  white,  cloudy  stain 
on  the  inner  surface  of  the  tube;  at  190°  C.,  this  cloudy  stain 
changed  to  a  pale  green  spot,  and  with  increasing  tempera- 
ture to  210°  C.,  no  further  change  was  noted.  Dry  sodium 
carbonate  was  added  to  an  aqueous  solution  of  the  crystals, 
and  a  slight  effervescence  was  observed.  Some  iron  was  sepa- 
rated which  possibly  was  in  combination  with  the  crystalline 
principle.  Negative  results  followed  tests  for  formates,  ace- 
tates, malates,  tartrates,  citrates,  phosphates,  oxalates,  alka- 
loids, and  glucosides. 

The  amount  of  glucos^e  present  in  the  aqueous  extract  was 
too  small  to  determine  quantitatively.  Negative  results  for 
tannin. 

Extract  (4),  the  Yellow  Base  of  the  Leaf. 

The  residual  powder  from  the  alcoholic  maceration  was 
dried  and  replaced  in  the  percolator.  Cold  distilled  water  was 
allowed  to  percolate  slowly  through  the  powder.  The  aque- 
ous extract  was  slightly  acid  in  reaction.  A  known  measure 

1  The  material  used  in  this  analysis  of  the  green  part  of  the  leaf  was  quite 
dry  and  powdered  readily.  A  previous  examination  of  the  fresh  leaves  gave 
more  satisfactory  quantitative  results.  A  gum  was  extracted  which  promises 
to  be  of  interest  for  a  future  study,  and  the  crystals  separated  from  the  lead 
sulphide  filtrate  are  to  be  further  investigated. 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         161 

of  it  was  evaporated,  dried,  and  weighed.    The  ash  was  de- 
termined from  a  part  of  the  aqueous  extract  residue. 


TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Aqueous  residue  dried  between  100°  C.  and  110°  C 11.35  per  cent. 

"       ash 3.10       " 

Gum. 

One  volume  of  the  aqueous  extract  was  mixed  with  two 
volumes  of  stronger  alcohol.  The  precipitate  was  collected, 
washed  with  66  per  cent,  alcohol,  dried,  and  weighed.  The 
ash  was  calculated  from  incinerating  the  precipitate,  and  de- 
ducting the  filter. 

Weight  of  precipitate  by  stronger  alcohol  yielded 3-850  per  cent. 

ashyielded 0.676       " 

Carbhydrates. 

The  filtrate  and  wash  alcohol  from  the  gum  precipitate  were 
concentrated  at  a  low  temperature.  The  residual  liquid  was 
mixed  with  four  volumes  of  stronger  alcohol,  when  a  precipi- 
tate formed,  and  was  rapidly  filtered  off.  The  carbhydrates 
were  dissolved  in  water  boiled  with  dilute  acid,  and  the  liquid 
rendered  alkaline  and  heated  over  a  water-bath  with  Feh- 
ling's  solution.  The  amount  of  carbhydrates  was  estimated 
gravimetrically  in  the  usual  way.  It  gave  2.95  per  cent. 

Carbhydrate  Filtrate. 

The  filtrate  residue  was  examined  for  glucose,  and  traces 
of  it  were  present.  The  -filtrate  residue  was  precipitated  with 
acetate  of  lead,  and  the  lead  precipitate  was  dissolved  in  water 
and  decomposed  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  lead  sul- 
phide filtrate  was  tested  quantitatively  for  organic  acids,  and 
a  turbidity  formed  on  adding  to  the  filtrate  lime-water.  It 
was  not  completely  cleared  by  acetic  acid. 

Negative  results  followed  tests  with  alcoholic  methyl-violet 


162        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

solution  for  mineral  acids.    The  aqueous  extract  contained  no 
tannin.    Calcium  oxalate  was  determined  in  it. 


AQUEOUS  MACERATION  AT  A  TEMPERATURE  OF  50°  C.  TO  60°  C. 

The  Bark  of  the  Root  (i),  the  Wood  of  the  Root  (2). 

The  powder  (i)  used  in  the  cold  water  extraction  was 
macerated  with  distilled  water  heated  between  50°  and  60°  C. 
The  warm  aqueous  extract  (i)  was  cooled  and  mixed  with  three 
volumes  of  stronger  alcohol.  A  precipitate  formed; it  was  dried, 
weighed,  and  the  percentage  estimated.  It  yielded  0.03  per 
cent.1  The  precipitate  was  dissolved  in  warm  water.  On  evap- 
orating the  nitrate  a  white  residue  was  obtained.  It  was 
stained  yellow  by  iodine. 

The  powder  (2)  from  the  cold-water  treatment  was  macer- 
ated in  the  warm  water.  The  warm  aqueous  extract  (2)  was 
a  dark-colored  liquid,  indicating  a  coloring- matter.  A  cer- 
tain measure  of  the  extract  was  evaporated,  and  the  solids 
estimated.  It  amounted  to  4  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  solids 
precipitated  from  the  extract  by  stronger  alcohol  was  0.25 
per  cent. 

QUANTITATIVE  ESTIMATION  OF  SAPONIN2 

The  two  methods  of  Christophsohn  and  Otten  for  the  quanti- 
tative estimation  of  saponin  were  adopted.  The  wood  of  the 
root  was  examined. 

A.  Ten  grams  of  the  original  powder  were  boiled  with  dis- 
tilled water.   The  saponin  was  precipitated  by  baryta-water. 
After  weighing,  it  was  ignited,  and  the  baryta  estimated  as 
carbonate,  calculated  into  oxide  and  deducted  from  the  weight 
of  the  saponin-baryta,  the  difference  being  the  weight  of  sa- 
ponin. 

B.  The  saponin-baryta  was  decomposed  by  acid  and  the 
weight  of  the  sapogenin  was  ascertained  and  calculated  to 
saponin. 

1  Examination  for  Inulin,  page  87,  "Plant  Analysis,"    G.  Dragendorff. 
English  translation. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  68. 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         163 

Several  estimations  were  made  on  two  specimens  of  the 
Yucca,  collected  at  different  times  of  the  year. 

Mean  percentage,  A 8.95  per  cent. 

"  "         B iQ.401     " 


SUMMARY  IV.     AQUEOUS  EXTRACTS 


Solids  ex- 
tracted. 

Ash. 

Gum. 

Ash. 

Glucose. 

Saponin. 

i.  Bark  of  the  root.... 
2.  Wood  of  the  root.  .  . 

4.00  % 

12.10% 

4-35% 
"•35% 

2.65% 
i-74% 
0.40% 

3-io% 

2.00% 
1.70% 
O-77% 

3-85% 

0.20% 

0.34% 

0.12% 

0.67% 

traces 
4-47% 
traces 

traces 

A. 
8-95% 

B. 
10.40% 

4.  Yellow  base  of  the 
leaf. 

The  aqueous  extracts  contained  gum,  albuminous  substances, 
carbhydrates,  glucose,  saponin,  organic  acids,  calcium  ox- 
alate,  and  no  tannin,  mineral  acids,  nor  alkaloids.  Arabin 
was  not  separated  from  gum  (i).  Calcium  oxalate  was  brought 
into  aqueous  solution  possibly  by  means  of  the  organic  acids 
or  saponin.  Needle-shaped  crystals  were  found  in  extract  (3). 
They  did  not  respond  to  tests  for  formates,  acetates,  ma- 
lates,  citrates,  tartrates,  phosphates,  oxalates,  glucosides,  and 
alkaloids. 

Aqueous  extracts  of  50°  C.  to  60°  C.  from  the  bark  and  wood 
of  the  root  contained  Inulin. 

DILUTE  CAUSTIC  SODA  EXTRACTS 

Extract  (i),  the  Bark  of  the  Root. 

The  residual  powder  insoluble  in  water  was  suspended 
whilst  moist  in  a  dilute  soda  solution  (o.i  to  0.2  per  cent). 
After  twenty-four  hours  the  mixture  was  filtered.  One  volume 
of  the  filtrate  was  acidified  with  acetic  acid  and  mixed  with 
three  volumes  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  allowed  to  stand 
in  the  cool.  The  precipitate  was  collected,  washed  with  75  per 


"  Examination  of  the  Yucca  angustijolia,"  by  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  The 
Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter,  September  12,  1885,  p.  301. 


164       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

cent,  alcohol,  dried,  and  weighed,  deducting  ash.     It  con- 
sisted of  mucilaginous  substances  and  albuminoids. 

Weight  of  precipitate  by  90  per  cent,  alcohol  yielded 0.85  per  cent. 

ash  yielded 0.25        " 

Lassaigne's  test  showed  the  presence  of  albuminous  sub- 
stances. 

The  filtrate  and  wash  alcohol  from  the  90  per  cent,  alcohol 
precipitate  was  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  weighed,  deducting 
the  amount  of  soda  acetate.  It  gave  0.24  per  cent.  The  resi- 
due soluble  in  water  was  mixed  with  acetate  of  copper  solu- 
tion. A  very  small  quantity  of  albuminous  substances  was 
precipitated  by  the  reagent. 

The  albuminoids  of  the  bark  were  estimated  from  the  total 
nitrogen  in  one  gram  of  the  original  powder.  It  yielded  4.75 
per  cent,  of  albuminoids. 

The  powder  insoluble  in  dilute  soda  solution  was  washed 
with  distilled  water.  The  liquid  was  deeply  colored.  It  was 
evaporated,  and  the  amount  of  solids  estimated.  It  gave  1.3 
per  cent. 

Extract  (2),  the  Wood  of  the  Root. 

The  powder  insoluble  in  water  was  treated  in  the  same  way 
as  in  extract  (i).  The  filtered  solution  was  mixed  with  90  per 
cent,  alcohol  in  the  manner  described.  The  precipitate  was 
estimated,  deducting  ash. 

Weight  of  precipitate  by  90  per  cent,  alcohol  yielded 2.170  per  cent. 

ash  yielded 0.256      " 

The  filtrate  from  the  90  per  cent,  alcohol  precipitate  was 
treated  with  water,  and  the  soluble  matter  precipitated  by 
copper  acetate.  The  precipitate  was  collected,  dried,  weighed, 
and  ignited,  the  resulting  oxide  of  copper  being  deducted.  It 
yielded  0.104  Per  cent,  of  albuminoids.  A  current  of  washed 
carbonic  acid  was  passed  through  the  dilute  soda  extract  to 
determine  the  presence  of  globulin  (vitellin,  myosin),  and 
with  negative  results.  The  albuminoids  were  determined  from 


STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         165 

the  total  nitrogen  in  the  powdered  wood.  It  amounted  to  4.75 
per  cent.  The  total  albuminoids  in  the  leaves  gave  9.62  per 
cent. 

DILUTE  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID   EXTRACTS 

Extract  (i),  the  Bark  of  the  Root 

The  powder  insoluble  in  dilute  soda  was  washed  with  water 
and  suspended  in  water  containing  i  per  cent,  of  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The  absence  of  the  blue  color  which  the  starch 
granules  assume  when  treated  with  iodine  solution  was  de- 
termined by  examining  the  bark  under  the  microscope;  and 
consequently  it  was  not  looked  for  in  the  extract.  A  quali- 
tative test  showed  the  presence  of  calcium  phosphate  and 
calcium  oxalate.  A  measured  quantity  of  the  filtrate  was  neu- 
tralized with  ammonia  and  mixed  with  three  volumes  of  90 
per  cent,  alcohol.  The  precipitate  was  collected  on  a  weighed 
filter,  washed  with  60  per  cent,  alcohol,  dried,  and  weighed. 
It  was  incinerated,  and  the  ash  deducted  from  the  precipitate. 

The  precipitate  yielded 5.20  per  cent. 

"     ofash ' 0.98       " 

Organic  substance 4.22        " 

The  filtrate  from  the  90  per  cent,  alcohol  precipitate  was 
evaporated.  The  residue  was  composed  of  ammonium  chloride 
from  the  reagents  employed,  and  an  organic  substance  having 
an  odor  like  gum  benzoin.  It  was  agitated  with  ether,  and 
on  evaporating  the  solvent  a  white  residue  with  an  odor  like 
benzoin  was  obtained.  Sulphuric  acid  gave  a  red  color  with  it. 
The  amount  of  this  substance  was  calculated.  It  gave  0.45  per 
cent. 

Extract  (2),  the  Wood  of  the  Root. 

The  insoluble  powder  from  the  dilute  soda  maceration  was 
washed  with  distilled  water,  and  suspended  in  water  contain- 
ing i  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  same  means  were 
used  as  in  extract  (i)  to  determine  the  absence  of  starch  in 
the  wood  of  the  root.  Parabin  was  also  absent.  Calcium  oxa- 


166       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

late  was  detected  by  qualitative  tests.  A  similar  method, 
employed  for  its  estimation  in  extract  (i),  was  used  to  de- 
termine it  quantitatively. 

The  precipitate  yielded 0.305  per  cent. 

"      ofash 0.155       " 

Organic  substance 0.150       " 


Extract  (3),  the  Green  Part  oj  Leaf. 

The  powder  used  in  the  dilute  soda  maceration  was  washed 
with  distilled  water  and  suspended  in  water  containing  i  per 
cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid.  Iron  and  calcium  phosphate  were 
detected  in  the  extract.  The  leaves  were  examined  under  the 
microscope,  and  a  blue  color  was  developed  by  an  aqueous 
solution  of  iodine,  indicative  of  starch  granules.  Starch  was 
also  present  in  the  yellow  base  of  the  leaves. 

TOTAL  QUANTITATIVE  RESULTS. 


(i)  The 
bark  of 
the  root. 

(2)  The 
•wood  of 
the  root. 

(3)  Green 
part  of 
leaf. 

(4)    Yellow 
base  of 
leaf. 

i  .  Moisture  .......   .   . 

Per  cent. 
678 

Per  cent. 
11.67 

Per  cent. 
8  II 

Per  cent. 
•37  oo 

2   Total  ash 

17  ^8 

TC   7< 

cr  7^ 

O/'v-" 

10  63 

3.  Petroleum  spirit  extract  
4.  Ethereal  extract 

1.24 
3l6 

•55 
i  70 

2.20 
I.2< 

1.  10 

I  7O 

5    Alcoholic  extract 

Q  21? 

14  3O 

1  80 

4  3O 

6.  Aqueous  extract  

4.O3 

^•O^ 

16.10 

4.7C 

^•ow 

H.21? 

7.  Dilute  soda  extract 

I.OQ 

2.41 

8.  Wash  residue  

I.3O 

9.  Dilute  acid  extract  

5.6<; 

.9Q 

Total  percentage 

40  88 

62   78 

2^.46 

66.08 

Total  albuminoids  estimated  on 
powder.  .  . 

4.7< 

4.74 

Q  62 

Quantitative  saponin  determi-  ^| 

A    8.95 

nation    on    powder    by   A   /• 
and  B                                    } 

—  *  

B  10.40 

STUDY  OF  YUCCA  ANGUSTIFOLIA         167 

In  my  paper  on  "  The  Chemical  Study  of  Yucca  angusti- 
folia"  read  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  I  stated  what  methods  I  had 
employed  to  separate  saponin,  and  the  properties  of  the  com- 
pound as  observed  in  that  plant.  Since  that  time  a  further 
study  of  it  has  induced  me  to  withhold  the  notes  used  at  Ann 
Arbor,  from  this,  and  to  offer  them,  with  those  collected  later, 
in  a  separate  and  more  complete  publication. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  F.  M.  Endlich  for  his  courteous  con- 
sideration and  kindness  in  selecting  and  forwarding  the  fine 
specimens  of  Yucca  which  were  used  in  these  analyses,  and 
which  were  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Valley,  New 
Mexico.  Within  a  few  weeks  I  have  received,  in  addition,  sev- 
eral hundred  pounds  of  the  plant  from  Dr.  Endlich. 

The  investigations  described  in  the  preceding  pages  were 
conducted  in  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy,  from  February  to  August,  1885. 


CERTAIN  CHEMICAL  CONSTITUENTS  OF  PLANTS 
CONSIDERED  IN  RELATION  TO  THEIR  MOR- 
PHOLOGY  AND  EVOLUTION.1 

THE  writer  has  been  engaged  for  some  time  upon  the  study 
of  plants  by  means  of  proximate  qualitative  and  quantitative 
chemical  analysis,  in  which  the  latest  methods  advanced  by 
Dragendorff  were  followed.  The  facts  obtained  from  these 
studies  tend  to  show  a  chemical  progression  in  plants,  and 
a  mutual  dependence  between  chemical  constituents  and 
change  of  vegetable  form. 

All  plants  that  were  known  to  contain  saponin  were  exam- 
ined to  determine  the  correlation  between  this  constituent  and 
the  accompanying  morphological  forms.  It  was  found  that  these 
saponin  plants  occupied  the  great  middle  plane  of  M.  Edouard 
Heckel's  scheme  of  plant  evolution.2  M.  Heckel  arranges  all 
plants  within  three  divisions:  i,  Simplicity  of  floral  elements, 
2,  Multiplicity  of  floral  elements,  3,  Condensation  of  floral 
elements;  and  in  addition  he  bases  his  theories  upon  three 
characters:  filiation,  adaptation,  and  progression.  These 
laws,  as  well  as  the  three  divisions  of  development,  are  not 
only  elements  of  test  for  the  great  divisions,  but  are  to  be  found 
in  orders,  sub-orders,  and  classes.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that 
all  the  saponin  groups  belong  to  this  middle  division,  or  mul- 
tiplicity of  floral  elements.  Saponin  is  thus  a  constructive 
element  in  developing  the  plant  from  the  multiplicity  of  floral 
elements  to  the  cephalization  of  those  organs.  It  is  an  indis- 
pensable principle  in  the  progression  of  certain  lines  of  plants 

1  Abstract,  by  the  author,  of  a  paper  read  before  the  Chemical  Section  of  the 
A.  A.  A.  S.,  at  Buffalo,  1886:  "Evolution  used  in  the  Sense  of  Progression." 
Published  in  the  Botanical  Gazette,  vol.  xi,  October,  1886. 

2  "Les  Plantes  et  la  Theorie  de  1'Evolution,"  Revue  Scientifique,  13  Mars, 
1886. 


CHEMICAL   CONSTITUENTS   OF  PLANTS      169 

passing  from  their  lower  to  their  higher  stages.  Saponin  is 
invariably  absent  where  the  floral  elements  are  simple;  it  is 
invariably  absent  where  the  floral  elements  are  condensed  to 
their  greatest  extent.  Its  position  is  plainly  that  of  a  factor 
in  the  great  middle  realm  of  plant  life  when  the  elements  of 
the  individual  are  striving  to  condense  and  thus  increase  their 
physiological  action  and  the  economy  of  parts.  All  the  great 
groups  that  contain  saponin  are  closely  allied  and  possess 
other  properties  in  common,  as  fibrous  or  bulbous  roots,  root- 
stocks,  tubular  character  of  some  part  of  the  flower,  and  a 
climbing  tendency  in  Smilacece  and  some  of  the  Sapotacecz. 

Numerous  analogous  examples  of  a  correspondence  between 
morphology  and  chemical  constituents  were  advanced,  and 
the  following  conclusions  reached: 

1.  A  similarity  of  one  or  more  chemical  constituents  is  to 
be  found  in  all  plants  that  are  equally  developed,  and  on  the 
same  evolutionary  plane. 

2.  The  evolution  of  chemical  constituents  in  which  they 
follow  parallel  lines  with  the  evolutionary  course  of  plant  forms, 
the  one  being  intimately  connected  with  the  other,  and  con- 
sequently that   chemical  constituents  are  indicative  of  the 
height  of  the  scale  of  progression,  and  are  essentially  appro- 
priate for  a  basis  of  botanical  classification.    In  other  words, 
that  the  theory  of  evolution  in  plant  life  is  best  illustrated 
by  the  chemical  constituents  of  vegetable  form. 

The  reasons  offered  in  favor  of  a  chemical  basis  of  classi- 
fication are:  — 

1.  The  disagreement  among  botanists  themselves,  depend- 
ing upon  the  insufficiency  of  the  present  methods  of  classifica- 
tion. 

2.  Chemical  constituents,  or  the  constructive  elements  of 
form  are  intimately  associated  with  the  origin  and  progres- 
sion of  plant  life,  and  are  consequently  better  adapted  for 
classification  than  organs  and  tissues,  because,  as  component 
parts,  less  complex. 

3.  By  the  invariable  composition  and  structure  of  given  de- 
terminate chemical  constituents. 

4.  The  percentage  of  any  given  compound  in  a  plant  would 


1 70       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

gauge  the  progression  or  retrogression  of  a  plant,  species,  or 
genus,  and  would  accentuate  the  characters  of  progression, 
adaptation,  and  filiation. 

5.  Variations  in  chemical  constituents  would  be  detected  by 
analysis  earlier  than  consequent  variations  of  organs  or  tissues. 

6.  It  is  a  law  of  internal  influences  controlling  function  and 
modifying  forms  rather  than  of  external  forces,  hence  a  study 
of  the  elements  of  the  innermost  structure  of  plant  life  is  a 
study  of  that  law  and  of  life  itself. 

No/t  all  chemical  constituents  will  answer  as  means  of  clas- 
sification for  the  same  great  evolutionary  plane,  though  any 
compound  might  be  found  to  furnish  a  basis  for  the  division 
of  plants  into  classes,  orders,  sub-orders,  genera,  and  species. 

Albuminous  compounds  and  chlorophyll  are  less  likely  to 
be  serviceable  as  compounds  of  classification.  They  are  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  manifestation  and  continuance  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  though  they  are  not  regarded  as  the  essen- 
tial factors  in  development. 

The  chemical  study  of  plants  is  meant  to  include  micro- 
chemistry  in  its  application  to  histology  and  physiology,  in  de- 
termining the  position  in  the  cell  of  any  chemical  compound, 
and  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis  to  be  practiced  in 
accordance  with  the  schemes  of  Dragendorff  and  others.  I 
should  suggest  that  analysis  be  made  of  each  part  of  the  plant, 
as  of  the  root,  stem,  bark,  wood,  leaf,  flower,  and  seeds;  also 
of  the  separate  organs  of  plants,  i.e.,  in  the  flower,  of  the  sta- 
mens, pistils,  petals,  calyxes,  and  of  various  plants  under 
various  conditions  of  age,  climate,  soil,  and  seasons.  Under 
these  conditions  a  comparison  of  chemical  constituents  with 
plant  structure  would  lead  to  a  comprehension  of  the  corre- 
lation between  morphology  and  chemistry. 


ON  H^MATOXYLIN  IN  THE  BARK  OF  SARACA 

INDICA.1 

Miss  HELEN  C.  DE  S.  ABBOTT  stated  that  De  CanMle 2 
and  Linnaeus  describe  Saraca  Indica  as  a  member  of  the  family 
Leguminosae.  According  to  De  Candolle  it  belongs  to  the 
genus  Jonesia,  Saraca  Linn.,  and  is  separated  by  five  genera 
from  the  genus  Hcematoxylon,  or  the  logwood. 

In  an  article  on  certain  drugs  indigenous  to  India,  Dr. 
Waring  3  gives  an  account  of  the  medicinal  uses  of  the  bark 
of  Saraca  Indica.  The  attention  of  Messrs.  Parke,  Davis  & 
Co.,  Detroit,  Michigan,  was  called  to  this  drug,  and  through 
their  correspondents  in  India  they  secured  a  supply,  samples 
of  which  have  been  submitted  to  the  speaker  for  a  chemical 
analysis.  The  full  results  of  this  analysis  will  appear  elsewhere, 
but  it  is  now  desired  to  announce  a  discovery  of  practical  and 
scientific  interest  in  this  connection. 

A  coloring  principle,  identical  with  logwood  dye,  has  been 
isolated  by  her  from  the  bark  of  Saraca  Indica,  where  it  existed 
in  two  conditions,  as  haematoxylin  and  an  oxidized  product. 
The  former  was  separated  as  yellow  crystals,  analogous  in 
form  to  haematoxylin  crystals  from  the  true  logwood,  Hcema- 
toxylon  campechianum.  The  alcoholic  extract  of  the  bark 
contained  about  18  per  cent,  of  a  red-colored  substance, 
which  agreed  in  color  and  dye  tests  with  a  like  constituent 
found  in  logwood.  Mordanted  cotton  fabric  was  dyed  with 
haematoxylin,  extracted  by  ether  from  the  Saraca  bark,  and 
presented  the  characteristic  logwood  dye  colors. 

1  From  the  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Science  of  Philadelphia, 
November  30,  1886. 

2  Pro.  Sys.  Nat.  Reg.  Vegetabilis,  vol.  ii,  p.  487. 

3  British  Med.  Jour.,  June  6,  1885,  p.  1145. 


172      PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  following  is  a  table  of  dyewood  colors  with  reagents, 
yielded  by  Brazil  wood  and  logwood: * — 


Reagents. 

Brasilin. 

H  tKmatoxylin. 

Alkalies  

Claret-red  sol.  . 

Reddish  purple  sol 

Acids  (dilute)  

Orange  pot 

Pink  sol 

Acids  (strong) 

Yellow  ppt 

Pink  sol 

Alum  sol 

Crimson-red  ppt 

Yellow  then  violet  sol 

Lime-water  

Crimson-red  ppt. 

Bluish  purple  ppt 

Ferrous  salts  .     .  .   ... 

Purplish-bPk  ppt 

Bluish  black  ppt 

Ferric  salts 

Brownish-red  ppt 

Black  ppt 

Copper  salts  

Brownish-red  ppt. 

Purple  sol. 

Lead  salts      ..   

Crimson-red  ppt 

Violet  sol 

Mercuric  salts 

Yellow  ppt 

Yellow  sol 

Silver  salts  

Yellow  ppt  

Grav  ppt. 

Tartar  emetic  

Rose-colored  ppt 

Purple  sol. 

Stannous  chloride 

Red  ppt 

Purple  ppt 

Sodium  aluminate  

Claret-red  ppt  

Purple  ppt. 

The  extracts  of  Saraca  Indica  bark,  containing  the  coloring 
principle,  were  tested  with  these  reagents,  and  it  was  observed 
that  the  reactions  agreed  with  the  haematoxylin  colors,  and  in 
no  case  with  those  of  brasilin.  However,  the  colors  produced 
by  different  alkalies  varied  in  tints  as  she  had  found  in  both  the 
logwood  and  Saraca  extracts,  but  the  general  term  "reddish- 
purple  solution"  is  comprehensive.  A  rose- violet  precipitate 
was  yielded  by  stannous  chloride  solution  with  the  neutralized 
acidified  extracts  of  the  barks. 

The  bark  of  the  logwood-tree  is  not  used  for  making  the 
commercial  logwood  extracts,  the  wood  of  the  tree  being  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  The  presence  of  a  small  quantity  of 
hsematoxylin  was  determined  in  the  specimens  of  logwood- 
bark  which  she  examined,  and  with  the  bark  extracts  the  same 
reactions  with  reagents  were  obtained  as  with  the  logwood 
extracts,  but  owing  to  the  smaller  percentage  of  dye  in  the 
bark  the  colors  were  less  intense.  In  the  case  of  the  Saraca 
Indica  bark  the  colors  were  very  brilliant  and  indicated  the 


1  S.  P.  Sadtler  and  Wm.  L.  Rowland,  Am.  Jour,  oj  Phar.,  February,  1881. 


BARK   OF   SARACA  INDICA 


173 


presenpe  of  a  larger  proportion  of  the  coloring-matter  than 
in  the  logwood  bark.  These  results  should  encourage  inves- 
tigators to  secure  specimens  of  the  wood  of  the  Saraca,  in 
order  to  determine  if  it  contains  the  coloring  principle,  and 
should  this  be  ascertained  affirmatively,  whether  it  exists  in 
sufficiently  large  quantities  to  warrant  its  introduction  as  a 
new  source  of  this  commercial  product. 

To  exhibit  the  colors  produced  by  alkalies  upon  the  dye 
from  logwood  bark  and  Saraca  Indica  bark,  the  powdered 
material  was  macerated  over  the  water-bath  with  distilled  or 
filtered  river  water  acidulated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (i 
part  to  50),  the  extract  was  filtered  and  the  process  repeated 
until  no  more  color  was  removed.  This  extract  was  treated 
directly  with  the  reagents.  Excess  of  reagents  produced  darker 
tints,  and  after  a  time  the  solutions  were  decolorized. 


Reagents. 


Sodium  Carbonate 
Sodium  Hydrate 
Potassium  Hydrate 
Ammonia 


Saraca  Indica. 

Hcematoxylon  Campechianum. 
Acidified  Extract. 


Bark. 


Pale  purple  to  reddish  violet  solution 
Blue  violet  ppt.  and  solution 
Red-colored  solution 
Pinkish-purple  solution 


Among  other  constituents  contained  in  the  Saraca  bark, 
catechin  and  saponin  were  determined.  Their  presence  along 
with  haematoxylin  is  significant  as  showing  the  chemical 
position  of  Saraca  in  relation  to  the  genera  Acacia  and  Hcema- 
toxylon, catechin  and  saponin  being  found,  as  is  well  known, 
in  Acacia.  The  evolutionary  position  of  the  order  Legumi- 
nosae,  to  which  these  genera  belong,  was  pointed  out  in  a 
fdrmer  paper,1  and  it  was  stated  that  all  orders  containing 
saponin  came  under  the  middle  division  of  M.  HeckePs  bo- 
tanical scheme,2  or  multiplicity  of  floral  elements.  The  facts 

1  "  Certain  Chemical  Constituents  of  Plants  considered  in  Relation  to  their 
Morphology  and  Evolution,"  by  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott.    Botanical  Gazette,  vol. 
xi,  1886,  p.  270. 

2  "Les  Planteset  laTheorie  de  PE volution,"  Revue  Scientifique,  13  Mars, 
1886. 


174      PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

accumulated  from  recent  researches,  since  the  publication  of 
her  article  in  the  "Botanical  Gazette,"  and  the  discovery  of 
saponin  in  many  plants  of  widely  different  genera  and  family, 
seem  to  justify  and  confirm  what  was  stated  in  the  article 
referred  to  above,  "saponin  is  invariably  absent  where  the 
floral  elements  are  simple;  it  is  invariably  absent  where  the 
floral  elements  are  condensed  to  their  greatest  extent.  Its 
position  is  plainly  that  of  a  factor  in  the  great  middle  realm 
of  plant  life  when  the  elements  of  the  individual  are  striving 
to  condense,  and  thus  increase  their  physiological  action  and 
the  economy  of  parts."  1 

1  Loc.  cit.,  Botanical  Gazette. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED  SCIENCE  1 

ScHLEiDEN,2  in  his  "Principles  of  Botany,"  states:  "Botany 
is  an  indispensable  branch  of  knowledge  for  the  chemist  and 
physiologist."  I  think  he  might  have  said,  with  equal  truth, 
chemistry  and  physiology  are  indispensable  branches  of  know- 
ledge to  the  botanist.  An  acquaintance  with  these  three 
branches  of  knowledge  is  indispensable  to  the  plant  chem- 
ist. If  we  consider  that  our  food,  fabrics,  dyestuffs,  perfumes, 
drugs,  and  beverages  are  all  derived  from  plants,  we  can 
scarcely  fail  to  inquire  into  the  functions  and  intimate  struc- 
ture of  vegetable  life.  The  application  of  chemical  knowledge 
to  the  study  of  plant  life  under  all  conditions  is  the  first  step 
toward  a  practical  solution  of  the  problems  of  agriculture, 
materia  medica,  and  the  industries  derived  from  plant  sources. 

As  long  ago  as  1795, 3  a  learned  Scotch  nobleman  said,  "In- 
deed there  is  no  operation  or  process  in  agriculture,  not  merely 
mechanical,  that  does  not  depend  on  chemistry."  Fifteen  years 
later  than  Earl  Dundonald's  treatise,  the  first  vegetable  sub- 
stance was  accurately  analyzed.  Another  period  passed  before 
the  analyses  of  Liebig.  Since  that  day  investigators  have  been 
busily  engaged  in  plant  analysis. 

Plant  analysis  to-day  rests  on  a  sure  foundation  as  a  dis- 
tinct subdivision  of  general  chemistry.  Chemistry  teaches  us 
what  vegetation  needs  for  its  growth,  and  points  out  the  sources 
whence  the  materials  for  crops  can  be  derived.  Intense  cul- 
tivation of  the  plant  is  the  agricultural  motto.  The  contrary 
is  true  for  pharmacy.  Plants  which  are  to  be  used  for  medicinal 

1  Delivered  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  January  17,  1887. 
Printed  in  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute;  also  in  pamphlet  form, 
1887. 

2  Principles  of  Scientific  Botany,  by  Dr.  J.  M.  Schleiden.    London,  1849. 
8  How  Crops  Grow,  by  S.  W.  Johnson.    London,  1869,  p.  4. 


176        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

purposes  should  grow  under  natural  conditions.  Cultivation 
of  plants  tends  to  diminish  in  quantity  or  to  eradicate  their 
noxious  or  medicinal  principles.  According  to  Professor  Vogel, 
hemlock  does  not  yield  coniin  in  Scotland;  cinchona  plants 
are  nearly  free  from  quinine  when  grown  in  hothouses;  and 
tannin  is  also  found  in  the  greatest  quantity  in  trees  which 
have  a  direct  supply  of  sunlight.  Wild  belladonna  plants  1 
contain  more  alkaloids  than  the  cultivated. 

Until  within  a  comparatively  very  recent  date,  there  were 
no  schemes  for  vegetable  analyses  equivalent  to  Fresenius's 
"  Manual  for  Inorganic  Substances."  The  irregularities  of  the 
methods  of  individual  investigators  in  plant  chemistry  made 
it  extremely  difficult  for  students  to  follow  this  kind  of  analy- 
sis. The  deficiency  has  been  filled  by  the  admirable  book  on 
"  Plant  Analysis,"  by  Professor  Dragendorff,  of  Dorpat,  Russia. 
This  book  has  appeared  in  a  French  translation,2  and  the 
first  edition  of  an  English  translation  3  was  published  a  year 
before.  Professor  Dragendorff  does  not  claim  to  have  written  a 
perfect  book.  He  offers  a  scheme,  which,  if  followed,  supple- 
mented by  well-known  or  original  methods  in  the  study  of 
special  or  new  compounds,  will  give  the  student  a  knowledge 
of  the  chemical  constituents  of  a  plant  which  he  could  not  well 
obtain  by  a  non- systematic  scheme. 

Dragendorff 's  scheme  has  been  criticised  as  encouraging  a 
mechanical  method  of  work  on  the  part  of  the  analyst,  but  I 
think  any  student,  on  working  for  the  first  time  on  a  new  drug, 
by  this  method  will  find  that  he  will  be  thrown  very  much  on 
his  own  resources,  and  that  the  scheme  serves  him  merely  as 
a  chain  and  anchor  in  a  sea  of  novelty  and  uncertainty.  It 
is  indeed  the  most  complete  scheme  for  plant  analysis  which 
we  have. 

The  scope  of  plant  analysis  is  well  outlined  by  Dragendorff 
in  his  introduction,  and  if  my  time  permitted  me  I  could  not 

1  "The  Alkaloidal  Value  of  Cultivated  and  Wild  Belladonna,"  by  Girrard. 
Pharm.  Jour,  and  Trans.,  vol.  xv,  p.  153. 

2  Encyclopedic   Chimique,   tome  X,  "Analyse  chimique   des   Vegetaux." 
Traduit  de  1'allemand  et  annote,  par  F.  Schlagdenhauffen.  Paris,  1885. 

8  Plant  Analysis,  by  G.  Dragendorff.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
H.  G.  Greenish.  London,  1884. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  177 

do  better  than  read  it.  The  attention  of  the  reader  is  directed 
to  the  great  number  of  species  of  plants  which  occur  in  na- 
ture, to  the  great  abundance  and  variety  of  their  chemical 
constituents,  and  to  the  circumstance  that  almost  every  skill- 
ful analysis  of  a  plant  that  has  not  been  examined  yields  new 
hitherto  unknown  products.  The  difficulties  of  plant  analysis 
are  pointed  out,  but  it  should  be  the  effort  of  future  investi- 
gators to  endeavor  to  overcome  these  difficulties,  when  the 
importance  of  plant  chemistry  is  considered  in  relation  to 
scientific  botany  and  chemistry,  medicine,  pharmacy,  dietetics, 
agriculture,  etc.  The  author  says  that  the  analysis  of  plants 
in  one  respect  possesses  an  advantage  over  the  analysis  of  min- 
erals,1 and  in  that  respect  can  often  be  made  more  complete 
than  that  of  a  mineral. 

It  would  not  be  possible  within  the  space  of  an  hour  to  give 
an  accurate  description  of  how  to  analyze  a  plant,  and  the  many 
methods  which  may  be  followed.  I  can  give  an  idea  of  how  to 
follow  the  scheme  of  which  I  have  spoken  as  being  the  most 
complete,  and  the  practical  application  of  some  facts  derived 
ylrom  plant  analysis. 

/  The  specimens  which  are  presented  for  analysis  should  be  in 
good  condition  and  well  selected  as  typical  of  the  genus  or 
species.  In  case  of  comparative  studies  the  time  of  year  of  the 
gathering  should  be  noted.  All  foreign  substances  and  dust 
should  be  removed,  and  care  taken  not  to  displace  parts  of 
the  specimens. 

All  plants  are  chemically  composed  of  two  classes  of  sub- 
stances, and  on  incineration  one  class  is  decomposed  into  gases 
and  the  other  class  forms  the  ash  constituents.  These  two 
divisions  of  the  plant's  constituents  are  known  as  the  volatile 
and  fixed  parts.  The  manner  of  proceeding  with  an  analysis  of 
a  plant  is  somewhat  different  in  the  case  of  fresh  plants  and  those 
which  are  air-dried.  Fruits  and  succulent  plants  and  fleshy  roots 
may  sometimes  be  examined  with  advantage  in  the  fresh  con- 
dition, especially  if  they  contain  much  saccharine  material 
or  volatile  products.  Generally  the  parts  of  plants  to  be  used 
for  analysis  are  dried  at  a  temperature  under  30°  C.,  or  air- 

1  Plant  Analysis,  English  translation,  p.  2. 


178        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

dried  until  in  a  state  of  powder ;  for  all  vegetable  substances 
must  be  brought  into  fine  subdivision  before  extraction,  in 
order  that  the  solvents  may  penetrate  the  cells. 

The  fine  powdering  of  the  material  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance; a  drug  mill  is  usually  used  for  this  purpose.  An  agate 
or  iron  mortar  may  be  used  sometimes  to  advantage,  or  the 
material  may  be  grated  upon  a  fine  grater,  and  then  sub- 
mitted to  the  same  process  of  powdering  and  sifting,  until  it 
can  be  passed  through  a  No.  80  sieve. 

The  Mexican  ocotilla  bark 1  is  resinous  and  contains  a  wax, 
and  it  is  very  difficult  to  powder,  From  this  fine  powder  the 
analysis  yielded,  by  cold  maceration,  thirteen  per  cent,  of  waxy 
substance.  Hot  maceration  gave  nine  per  cent.  An  analysis 
from  portions  less  finely  powdered  gave  three  per  cent,  less 
of  wax.  To  estimate  the  amount  of  moisture  retained  in  the 
air-dried  plant,  a  small  quantity  of  the  powder,  from  two  to 
five  grams,  may  be  weighed  and  dried  until  constant  weight 
at  a  temperature  from  100°  C.  to  105°  C.  By  means  of  this 
determination  the  results  of  all  other  estimations  of  the  analy- 
sis can  be  calculated  to  the  dry  substance.  Even  in  the  case 
of  fresh  plants,  it  will  be  necessary  for  a  quantitative  exami- 
nation of  the  entire  plant,  at  least  to  dry  the  portions  which 
are  to  be  treated  with  petroleum-ether,  ether,  and  alcohol. 

The  powder  which  has  served  for  the  moisture  determination 
is  carefully  burned  at  a  dull  red  heat,  and  the  ash  residue 
weighed.  This  gives  the  total  ash  constituents  of  the  plant. 
In  many  cases  it  is  desirable  to  estimate  the  amount  of  soluble 
and  insoluble  ash,  and  to  determine,  quantitatively,  one  or  more 
of  the  ash  constituents,  especially  sulphuric  and  phosphoric 
acids  and  potash.  In  the  ash  may  be  found  phosphorus,  sul- 
phur, silicon,  chlorine,  potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  magne- 
sium, iron,  and  manganese,  as  well  as  oxygen,  carbon,  and 
nitrogen;  rarely  lithium,  rubidium,  iodine,  bromine,  fluorine, 
barium,  copper,  zinc,  and  titanium.  The  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus  are  derived  more  especially 
from  the  organized  parts  of  the  plant,  as  the  protoplasm  and 

1  "Preliminary  Analysis  of  the  Bark  of  Fouquieria  Splendens,"  by  Helen 
C.  De  S.  Abbott.  See  p.  117. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  179 

cell  wall,  and  from  carbonaceous  substances,  such  as  sugar, 
fats,  and  acids.  It  was  stated  that  the  volatile  part  of  plants 
on  incineration  is  gaseous,  consisting  principally  of  carbon 
dioxide,  watery  vapor,  and  nitrogen,  —  the  inference  being 
that  the  combustible  portion  of  the  plant  contains  the  elements 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen. 

The  fact  that  various  mineral  constituents  are  essential  to 
the  growth  and  development  of  plants  is  of  practical  value  in 
agriculture.  The  soil  must  contain  the  various  constituents 
in  such  quantity  and  form  as  to  be  available  to  the  plant. 
The  ash  analysis  of  any  plant  indicates  in  a  great  measure 
the  character  of  its  surrounding  soil,  though  the  chemical 
composition  in  which  the  ash  is  contained  in  the  plant  is  not 
necessarily  the  same  as  in  the  soil. 

In  investigating  a  new  plant  for  the  first  time,  all  rational 
means  for  discovering  its  component  parts  should  be  resorted 
to.  Before  beginning  the  systematic  analytical  scheme,  a  micro- 
chemical  investigation  of  thin  sections  of  the  plant,  and  even 
of  the  powdered  plant,  may  be  followed.  I  have  found  it  an 
excellent  aid  in  the  work,  after  knowing  what  constituents 
were  present  from  chemical  analysis,  to  determine  in  what 
tissues  and  cells  these  various  substances  are  found.  A  drop 
of  the  extracts  evaporated  on  a  glass  slide  frequently  indicates 
the  character  of  the  substances  contained  in  them. 

It  is  of  importance  to  determine  if  volatile  oils  or  acids, 
alkaloids,  and  other  substances  are  present,  which  can  be 
separated  by  distillation,  and  for  this  purpose  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  powdered  plant  may  be  mixed  in  a  convenient 
vessel  with  water,  acidulated  water,  or  milk  of  lime,  and  the 
mixture  heated,  preferably  by  steam.  The  distillate  is  con- 
densed and  may  be  examined  as  to  its  reaction,  odor,  and 
physical  appearance.  If  the  aqueous  distillate  is  agitated  with 
a  light  pretroleum- ether,1  volatile  products  may  be  readily 
obtained. 

Many  volatile  oils  diffuse  in  moist  air  and  pass  off  with  the 
petroleum- ether,  if  precautions  are  not  taken  to  prevent  it; 

1  Manufactured  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Jayne,  Frankford,  Pa. 


i8o        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

but  a  system  by  Osse 1  has  been  devised  to  evaporate  the  pe- 
troleum-ether and  save  the  volatile  oil. 

Distillation  of  volatile  principles  may  be  sometimes  sub- 
stituted by  other  methods,  such  as  "infusion"  and  "enfleur- 
age,"  of  which  I  shall  speak  later. 

The  following  is  the  general  plan  I  usually  follow,  based 
upon  Dragendorff's  scheme,  in  order  to  determine  the  con- 
stituents of  any  plant.  Twenty,  fifty,  or  a  hundred  grams  of 
the  dried  powdered  plant  are  weighed  and  macerated  with  suc- 
cessive solvents.  The  solvent  is  added  in  the  proportion  of 
ten  c.  c.  to  one  gram  of  powder.  This  is  allowed  to  stand, 
with  frequent  shaking,  for  eight  days,  when  the  liquid  is  re- 
moved with  a  pipette  or  filtered  from  the  powder.  The  residual 
powder  is  then  rinsed  with  more  of  the  solvent,  which,  added 
to  the  extract  first  obtained,  is  made  to  a  known  volume. 
The  powder  is  dried  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  and  is  then 
ready  for  maceration  with  a  second  solvent,  and  so  on,  until 
the  sequence  of  solvents  has  removed  all  soluble  matter  from 
the  powder.  The  residual  insoluble  portions  are  cellulose, 
lignin,  and  other  allied  substances,  which  form  the  firm  frame- 
work of  the  plant. 

The  solvents  used  must  be  chemically  pure.  The  order 
of  solvents  recommended  by  Dragendorff,  and  the  classes 
of  compounds  which  may  be  extracted  by  them  are  given  in 
the  table. 

PETROLEUM-ETHER  EXTRACT 

Ethereal  oils;  volatile  fat  acids;  glycerides;  waxes;  cam- 
phors; cholesterin  or  allied  substances;  chlorophyll  and 
alkaloids  with  fixed  oils;  aldehydes;  ethereal  salts;  alcohols; 
aromatic  acids;  resins. 

ETHER  EXTRACT 

Resins;  waxes;  fats;  chlorophyll;  coloring- matters;  organic 
acids;  glucosides;  alkaloids  (caoutchouc,  chloroform,  or  bisul- 
phide extracts). 

\ 

1  Archiv.  d.  Pharm.  (3),  vii,  104  (1875).  (Year-Book  Pharm.,  1876,  362.) 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE   181 

ALCOHOL  EXTRACT 

Tannic  acids;  bitter  principles;  organic  acids;  alkaloids; 
glucosides;  glucose;  saccharose;  coloring- matters;  resins. 

WATER  EXTRACT 

Mucilaginous  and  albuminous  substances;  dextrin  and 
other  carbohydrates ;  saponin  and  allied  compounds;  glucoses; 
saccharoses;  organic  and  mineral  acids. 

DILUTE  SODA  EXTRACT 

Metarabic  acid;  albuminous  substances;  phlobaphenes, 
etc. 

DILUTE  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  EXTRACT 

Parabin;  oxalate  of  calcium,  etc.;  starch. 


DETERMINATION    OF    LIGNIN    AND    ALLIED    SUBSTANCES    AND 
OF  CELLULOSE 

Benzole,  chloroform,  amyl  alcohol,  and  acetic  ether  are 
frequently  valuable  solvents  for  certain  extractions,  although 
they  are  not  included  in  the  general  scheme. 

Dragendorff  recommends  the  maceration  to  be  conducted 
at  the  ordinary  temperature,  but  a  fixed  oil,  if  present,  may 
be  extracted  more  readily  by  exhaustion  at  an  elevated  tem- 
perature. Such  substances  as  caoutchouc  may  be  readily 
extracted  by  boiling  chloroform  or  bisulphide  of  carbon.  If 
a  known  volume  of  the  extract  is  evaporated,  the  residue  will 
yield  an  approximate  result  of  the  amount  of  definite  sub- 
stances obtained  in  the  plant. 

In  my  own  work,  I  have  usually  found  it  convenient  to  take 
about  twenty  grams  of  the  powdered  plant  and  exhaust  them 
in  a  displacement  apparatus.  There  are  some  advantages  for 
this  method,  in  a  preliminary  study  of  the  plant.  The  time 
necessary  for  the  exhaustion  is  very  much  lessened;  from 
ten  to  twelve  hours  at  the  most  is  ample  time  to  allow  the 
apparatus  to  run  with  each  solvent,  if  the  solvents  are  kept  at 


182        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

a  boiling  heat  during  this  period.  It  is  a  rapid  way  to  deter- 
mine qualitatively  what  constituents  are  to  be  found  in  any 
plant,  and  this  may  be  followed  by  a  careful  quantitative  study 
on  larger  amounts.  The  general  insight  which  can  be  ob- 
tained of  the  chemistry  of  a  plant  from  this  small  quantity 
of  material  serves  as  a  valuable  guide  for  the  future  study  on 
a  larger  scale. 

The  extracts  obtained  by  heat  show  more  proneness  to 
oxidation  than  those  from  cold  maceration,  and  there  are  some 
slight  differences  in  the  character  of  the  extracts.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  higher  temperature  is  to  increase  the  number 
of  constituents  in  the  first  extracts;  i.  e.,  hot  petroleum- ether 
will  remove  a  considerable  quantity  of  chorophyll;  hot  ether 
will  extract  tannin,  and  hot  alcohol  extracts  contain  sugar, 
saponin,  etc.  After  the  hot  alcoholic  maceration,  the  water, 
dilute  soda,  and  acid  extractions  are  conducted  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature. 

It  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  object  in  view  on  the 
part  of  the  analyst  what  course  to  follow  in  the  study  of  a 
plant.  If  only  one  compound  is  to  be  isolated  and  examined, 
disregarding  the  other  constituents,  suitable  methods  of  study 
will  be  employed  for  this  end.  Even  when  DragendorfFs  sys- 
tematic scheme  is  followed,  a  fresh  portion  of  powder  should 
be  extracted  with  water  for  an  accurate  estimation  of  soluble 
albuminoids,  amides,  and  other  classes  of  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds. These  subjects  are  very  clearly  stated  in  the  volume 
of  "Plant  Analysis,"  to  which  I  have  referred. 

I  wish  to  bring  forward  some  well-known  statements,  which 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  practical  application  of  facts  dis- 
covered by  plant  analysis.  One  of  the  more  recent  applica- 
tions of  new  processes  to  industrial  chemistry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  hop-resin  extract *  on  a  large  scale.  The  use  which 
is  made  of  this  extract  is  in  the  manufacture  of  beers,  and 
it  is  being  used  to  a  large  extent  in  Philadelphia  and  New 
York,  fully  supplying  the  place  of  the  ordinary  hop.  The 
process  is  somewhat  as  follows:  The  hops  are  loosely  placed 

1  "Hop  Extract,"  by  W.  B.  Bissell,  Am.  Jour.  Pharm.,  April,  1885,  p. 
1 66. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  'AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  183 

in  large  wire  cages,  and  then  are  run  into  an  immense  boiler 
or  "extractor."  A  heavy  door  is  shut  securely,  and  about 
300  barrels  of  light  petroleum  are  pumped  in  by  an  engine, 
and  heat  is  applied  by  means  of  a  steam  coil,  until  a  pressure 
of  100  pounds  to  the  square  inch  has  been  obtained. 

The  object  of  this  high  pressure  is  to  break  or  crush  the 
glands,  which  contain  the  valuable  principle  called  lupulin, 
this  being  taken  up  by  the  hot  petroleum.  The  process  is  so 
managed  that  there  is  very  little  waste  of  menstruum,  and 
the  hop  extract  is  readily  separated;  the  petroleum-ether 
being  used  over  and  over  again.  One  pound  of  this  extract 
represents  about  twelve  pounds  of  choice  hops,  and  it  has 
a  great  advantage  over  the  hop  itself,  as  it  will  keep  for  an 
indefinite  time;  whereas  at  the  end  of  two  years  the  hop  is 
useless. 

Hop- resin,1  or  bitter,  was  discovered  from  the  chemical 
analysis  of  a  plant,  and  it  illustrates  to  what  practical  ends  a 
fact  derived  from  this  source  may  be  applied.  The  solubility 
of  hop-resin  in  petroleum-ether  is  availed  of  also  in  the  ex- 
amination of  beer.2 

Vegetable  wax  is  found  on  the  surfaces  of  leaves,  on  the 
stem,  and  the  berries  of  plants,  and  is  obtained  from  many 
sources.  The  commercial  supply  comes  from  certain  species 
of  the  palm-tree  family  in  considerable  quantities.  Carnaiiba 
wax  is  from  a  large  Brazilian  palm.  Myrica,  or  myrtle  wax, 
comes  from  the  berries  of  an  American  and  Mexican  plant, 
Myrica  recifera  of  the  Myricacece  family,  and  Japan  wax  is 
obtained  from  Rhus  succedaneum. 

Vegetable  wax  3  is  principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
candles,  but  on  account  of  its  greater  dryness,  it  breaks  much 
more  readily  than  animal  wax;  hence,  if  animal  wax  is  mixed 
in  small  proportions  with  vegetable  wax,  it  answers  very  well. 

1  Lermer,  Vierteljahresschr.  f.  prakt.  Pharm.,  xii,  504,  1863;  Bissell,  Amer. 
Jour.  Pharm.,  xlix,  582,  1877;   Griessmayer,  Ber.  d.  d.  Chem.  Ges.,  xi,  292, 
1878;  Isleib,  Archiv.  d.  Pharm.  (3),  xvi,  345,  1880;  Cech,  Zeitschr.  /.  Anal. 

„   Chem.,  xx,  180,  1881. 

2  Griessmayer. 

3  Matures  Premieres  Organiques.    Par  Pennetier,  p.  771. 


184        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

It  is  also  used  in  adulteration  of  beeswax.  Cerosin,1  a  wax 
from  sugar-cane,  is  said  to  melt  at  82°  C.  It  has  been  pro- 
posed, on  account  of  its  high  melting-point,  to  use  it  in  the 
manufacture  of  candles.  Five  hundred  plants  can  furnish, 
it  is  claimed,  one  kilogram  of  wax. 

The  bark  of  Fouquieria  splendens^  or  the  ocotilla  tree  of 
Mexico,  also  yields  a  wax.  The  native  Indians  use  this  stem 
for  illuminating  purposes;  it  burns  with  a  red,  smoky  flame, 
and  is  called  the  candle  tree. 

The  vegetable  waxes  are  mixtures  of  resinous  substances 
and  the  higher  fatty  acids,  and  differ  from  the  fixed  oils  in 
containing,  in  place  of  glycerin,  cetyl  and  myricyl  alcohols; 
properly  they  contain  ethers  of  higher  alcohols  of  the  ethylic 
series  and  free  acids.  The  wax  obtained  from  the  Graminea, 
or  grasses,  to  which  class  sugar-cane  belongs,  has  been  studied 
by  Konig.3  He  found  that  it  contained  no  glycerine  but  chlo- 
resterin,  cerotic,  palmitic,  and  oleic  acids. 

The  importation  of  vegetable  and  mineral  wax 4  for  1884  was 
617,992  pounds  ($69,026);  1885,  1,056,438  pounds  ($123,976). 

The  oils  of  vegetable  origin  used  in  commerce  5  are  usually 
derived  from  grains;  a  few  only  are  extracted  from  the  fleshy 
parts  of  fruits.  The  oil  is  found  in  the  form  of  minute  drops 
in  the  rinds  of  fruits ;  the  orange  contains  four  different  oils, 
and  in  many  seeds  the  place  of  starch  is  supplied  by  oil,  and 
serves  the  future  seedling  for  nutrition.  The  oil  is  usually  ob- 
tained on  a  large  scale  by  pressure ;  however,  oils  are  soluble  in 
petroleum-ether,  and  may  be  extracted  by  it.  In  France,6  the 
cultivation  of  oil-yielding  plants  occupied  445,000  hectares,  the 
product  of  which  represented  a  value  of  105,000,000  francs. 
Olive  oil 7  is  obtained  from  several  species  of  the  olive  tree. 

1  Matieres   Premieres   Organiques.     Par  Pennetier,   p.    771.     Annales  de 
Chimie  et  de  Physique,  Ixxv,  218.    Annal  d.  Chem.  und  Pharm.,  xxxvii,  170, 
1841.  Ibid.,  (new  series),  xiii,  451. 

2  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S.,  vol.  xxxiii.    Amer.  Jour.  Phar.,  February,  1885.    The 
analysis  of  this  plant  is  among  the  first  published  accounts  of  plants  treated 
by  Dragendorffs  scheme  in  this  country. 

3  Landw.  Versuchsstat,  xiii,  241. 

4  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department,  1885. 

5  LOG.  cit.,  Pennetier,  p.  706. 

6  Ibid.,  p.  709.  7  Ibid.,  p.  709. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  185 

It  serves  for  many  purposes,  and  enters  into  the  food  of  some 
nations.  In  Spain,  a  kind  of  soup,  made  of  oil,  garlic,  and 
bread  soaked  in  water,  is  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes. 

The  nuts1  of  Corylus  avellana  give  an  excellent  table  oil; 
it  is  also  used  in  perfumery.  The  residue  from  the  extract  is 
used  for  almond  confection,  and  is  preferable  to  that  made 
of  ordinary  almonds.  A  commerce  is  made  in  China  of  "  Chou- 
lah"2  obtained  from  one  of  the  Euphorbiacece.  This  tallow 
is  made  into  candles,  which  burn  with  a  brilliant  and  white 
flame.  There  is  an  enormous  demand  for  them.  Many  other 
plants  of  the  same  family. furnish  this  oil.  The  genus  Bassia, 
of  the  Sapotacece  family,  yields  several  important  fats,  among 
which  is  one  known  as  Galam  butter.  This  vegetable  butter 
can  replace  animal  fats,  and  is  largely  used  in  soap- making. 
The  annual  report  of  the  manufacturers  of  linseed  oil  alone 
for  one  year  was  figured  at  high  rates,  but  the  manufacture 
and  uses  of  this  oil  are  too  well  known  to  need  more  than  a 
mention. 

Olive  oil  in  the  American  Pharmacopoeia  is  replaced  by 
cotton-seed  oil.3 

The  supply  of  cotton  seed  —  Gossypium  —  is  obtained 
from  several  countries,  and  may  be  said  to  be  inexhaustible. 
The  Southern  States  of  North  America  contribute  the  largest 
quantity  by  millions  of  tons.  A  large  proportion  is  not  worth 
the  expense  of  transit,  and  is  burned  for  fuel  and  given  to 
stock  for  litter.  A  considerable  quantity  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  decorticated  cotton  cake  and  oil.  Egypt  is  said  to 
grow  a  superior  quality  of  seed,  and  England  derives  her 
principal  supply  from  there.  Improvements  in  the  method 
of  irrigation  are  said  to  have  increased  the  annual  quantity, 
but  the  average  of  past  years  has  been  about  250,000  tons. 

The  seeds  yield  some  twelve  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  oil.  The 
oil  in  appearance,  taste,  and  smell  resembles  fresh  olive  oil. 

The  fixed  oils  are  chemically  glycerides  and  are  principally 
composed  of  glycerin,  in  combination  with  oleic,  palmitic, 

1  Pennetier,  p.  750.  2  Ibid.,  p.  752. 

3  "Notes  on  Cotton-Seed  Oil,"  by  W.  Gilmour.  Am.  Jour.  Pharm.,  No- 
vember, 1885,  p.  565. 


i86        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

and  stearic  acids.  They  are  frequently  solid  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature, and  their  consistency  depends  upon  the  proportion 
of  oleic  acid  present. 

Commercial  oils 1  frequently  contain  free  acids;  thus  in  palm 
oil  the  free  acid  calculated  as  palmitic  acid  usually  varies 
from  twelve  to  eighty  per  cent.  The  presence  of  free  acid  in 
an  oil  is  doubtless  the  principal  if  not  the  only  cause  of  its 
tendency  to  act  on  metals,  and  therefore  seriously  affects  the 
suitability  of  an  oil  for  use  as  a  lubricant. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  vegetable  oils,  I  wish  to  call 
attention  to  the  essential-oil  industry  in  Grasse.2  The  world- 
wide fame  of  this  locality  depends  upon  the  essential  oils  of 
plants  which  grow  wild  or  are  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  oil  of  lavender,  rosemary,  the  garden  thyme,  of  the 
Labiatce  family  afford  an  important  export  industry  of  Grasse. 

The  following  quantities  of  oil  are  produced  in  Grasse  every 
year:  From  the  lavender,  80,000  to  100,000  kilograms;  from 
thyme  40,000,  and  from  rosemary,  20,000  to  25,000  kilograms. 
The  quantity  sent  out  from  Grasse  probably  meets  the  require- 
ments of  the  whole  world.  Dalmatia  only  furnishes  the  oil  of 
rosemary  and  sends  about  20,000  kilos  of  this  essential  oil  into 
the  market;  Grasse  also  sends  forth  each  year  oil  from  the 
citrus  species,  especially  oil  of  neroli,  which  is  much  esteemed. 
Orris  butter  is  distinguished  above  many  other  perfumes  by 
an  agreeable  softness  and  great  permanence.  One  of  the  houses 
in  Grasse  prepares  four  to  ten  kilograms  yearly.  Its  value  in 
Grasse  is  1,500  to  1,800  francs  the  kilo.  Besides  the  wholesale 
distillation  of  orange  flowers  and  roses,  some  other  aromatic 
plants  are  occasionally  worked  up  when  needed,  though  not 
to  any  great  extent. 

The  processes  used  for  extracting  these  perfumes  by  the 
methods  of  "infusion"  and  "enfleurage"  are  extremely  in- 
teresting and  may  deserve  a  passing  notice.  The  fat  used  as 
the  basis  of  the  "pommade"  is  selected  from  the  best  pig's 
lard  or  beef  suet.  The  melting,  its  mechanical  purification, 

1  Commercial  Organic  Analysis,  by  A.  H.Allen,  Philadelphia,  1887,  vol.  i, 
p.  28. 

2  F.  A.  Fluckiger,  Amer.  Jour.  Phar.,  March,  1885,  p.  131. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  187 

and  washing  are  conducted  with  great  care.  The  stability 
of  the  fat  is  increased  by  its  digestion  with  benzoin.  The 
"infusion"  is  effected  in  large  jacketed  boilers,  in  which 
the  fat  is  warmed  by  steam  heat  and  the  flowers  are  added. 
In  the  month  of  May  over  10,000  kilos  of  rose  or  bigarade 
flowers  pass  daily  for  many  successive  days  into  the  boilers  of 
the  factory  of  one  house  alone.  The  fat  is  diligently  stirred  by 
female  workers;  the  expression  by  means  of  hydraulic  presses 
is  done  by  men.  After  the  clearing  of  the  fat,  the  finished 
"pommade"  is  at  once  weighed  and  stored  in  tin  boxes. 

In  the  case  of  the  more  delicate  perfumes,  the  above  method 
of  "infusion  a  chaud"  is  replaced  by  "enfleurage."  For  this 
purpose  light  square  wooden  frames,  about  eighteen  inches 
each  way,  in  which  a  plate  of  glass  can  be  placed,  are  used. 
Upon  each  glass  is  spread  a  quantity  of  fat  in  a  thin  layer, 
and  this  is  strewn  thickly  with  flowers.  Sometimes  contact 
with  the  fat  is  avoided,  and  the  layer  of  fat  is  confined  to  the 
other  glass  wall  of  each  compartment.  When  a  perfumed  oil 
is  desired,  cloths  saturated  with  oil  for  the  "enfleurage"  may 
be  used.  The  flowers  are  shut  up  in  these  glass  compartments 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  and  are  repeatedly  renewed  and 
replaced  by  fresh  ones.  The  perfumed  fat  is  mixed  with 
alcohol  by  means  of  powerful  stirrers.  The  alcohol  takes  up 
scarcely  any  of  the  fat,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  odorous 
substances. 

From  several  trials,  I  think  these  processes  of  extraction 
may  be  applied  to  extract  the  delicate  odors  of  barks  and  other 
substances  which  would  be  destroyed  by  distillation,  and  have 
escaped  detection  up  to  this  time. 

Among  the  chemical  substances  recently  introduced  into 
the  field  of  chemical  industry  l  may  be  mentioned  cholesterin, 
or  lanolin,  CzeH^O  +  H2O.  Commercially,  this  substance 
is  obtained  from  animal  sources;  but  its  wide  distribution 
through  the  vegetable  kingdom  warrants  its  mention  in  this 
place.  The  singular  property  of  this  substance  and  its  prom- 

1  "Notes  on  Chemical  Substances  Recently  introduced  into  the  Field  of 
Chemical  Industry,"  by  J.  Levinstein.  Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Industry,  Nov.  29, 
1886. 


i88        PLANT   AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

ising  commercial  future  deserve  more  than  a  passing  notice. 
Liebrich  observed  that  cholesterin  fat  possesses  the  peculiar 
property  of  being  able  to  absorb  more  than  100  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  this  singular  property  was  denominated  by  the 
great  pharmacologist,  lanosation,  while  the  cholesterin,  mixed 
with  water,  was  termed  by  him,  lanolin.  He  also  first  called 
attention  to  the  great  therapeutical  value  of  lanolin,  and 
shortly  afterwards  the  industrial  production  of  pure  lanolin 
was  commenced  by  a  Berlin  firm,1  and  its  manufacture  has 
been  of  late  steadily  increasing. 

Lanolin  is  already  taking  the  place  of  vaseline,  parafnne, 
and  lard.  Its  efficacy  has  already  been  established  beyond 
doubt,  and  its  superiority  is  due  to  the  extraordinary  readiness 
with  which  it  is  absorbed  by  the  skin.  This  property  is  not 
known  to  belong  in  a  similar  degree  to  any  other  fatty  sub- 
stance. Besides  the  medicinal  use,  it  has  also  been  already 
introduced  into  various  branches  of  industry,  such  as  per- 
fumery, soaps,  and  pomades,  also  for  greasing  leather  belting 
and  for  improving  the  pliability  of  leather. 

The  history  of  the  wholesale  drug  trade  for  the  year  1886 
is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  on  record,  since  1879-80.  In 
a  late  number  of  the  "Druggist's  Circular,"  2  a  summary  is 
given  of  the  year,  from  which  I  have  taken  some  statements, 
from  the  table  of  prices,  as  follows:  — 

January  i.      December  15.  July  i. 

Alcohol $2.10  $2.17  $2.09 

Camphor 23  22.25  -23 

Gum  arable 70                     .95  .82^ 

Morphine 2.25                    2.10  1.90 

Vanilla  bean 10.00  18.00  12.00 

Copaiba  balsam 34                     .36  .34 

Cubebs 90                   1.35  .95 

Tragacanth 45                     -42  -37$ 

Senna  leaves 15                     .27^  .30 

Golden-seal 14                     .18  .13 

Pink-root 35                      .47!  -6o 

1  Messrs.  Jaffe*  &  Darmstadter. 

2  The  Druggist's  Circular  and  Chemical  Gazette,  January,  1887. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  189 

The  advance  in  alcohol  is  said  to  be  the  result  of  a  com- 
bination amongst  the  distillers.  Balsam  copaiba  has  for  a 
long  time  been  very  scarce;  but  the  arrival  of  new  stocks  will 
make  it  freer.  "Cubebs,  vanilla  beans,  gum  arabic,  tragacanth, 
senna,  golden-seal,  serpentaria,  and  pink-root  have  been  and 
are  still  very  scarce  and  are  likely  to  be  higher."  .  .  .  "The 
largest  movement  in  cocoa  leaves  ever  known,  took  place  early 
in  the  month."  .  .  .  "  A  short  crop  of  senna  coming  at  a  time 
when  all  markets  were  poorly  supplied,  and  during  an  unusually 
active  period,  is  responsible  for  the  upward  movement  of  the 
drug."  .  .  .  "The  position  of  quinine  just  now  is  an  inter- 
esting one,  and  the  future  of  the  market  depends  upon  the 
source  of  barks,  and  that  at  present  is  expected  to  be  upward, 
owing  to  reduced  visible  and  prospective  supplies." 

The  commercial  value  of  these  drugs  depends  upon  certain 
chemical  compounds  which  they  contain.  The  scarcity  of 
some  of  these  drugs  in  itself  is  a  sufficient  inducement  to  push 
forward  investigation  in  plant  chemistry,  and  to  endeavor  to 
discover  the  same  valuable  constituents  or  their  equivalents 
in  new  plants. 

The  preparation  of  fine  prescriptions  has  been  advanced 
by  the  perfection  in  chemical  methods  of  isolating  plant  con- 
stituents. The  medicinal  value  of  many  drugs  is  due  to  one  or 
more  principles,  and  to  be  able  to  administer  these  principles, 
apart  from  the  accompanying  compounds  of  the  plant,  is  a 
triumph  of  analytical  skill. 

A  new  and  convenient  form  to  prescribe  the  more  impor- 
tant alkaloids,  glucosides,  and  other  active  plant  principles, 
is  offered  by  Frederick  Stearns  &  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.  This 
firm  manufactures  alkametric  granules  and  alkadermic  pellets. 
These  granules  contain  carefully  prepared  medicines  repre- 
senting the  pure  alkaloid  or  active  principle. 

The  enormous  quantity  of  drugs  used  to  furnish  alkaloids 
or  other  medicinal  principles  may  be  seen  from  the  import * 
of  cinchona  bark  or  other  barks  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
quinine. 

1  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treas.  Dept. 


1 90        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Pounds.  Value. 

1884 2,588,307  $718,035 

1885 3,559,691  913,189 

Of  sulphate  of  quinia :  Ounces.  Value. 

1884 1,263,732  $1,610,163 

1885 1,390,126  1,292,794 

Other  salts  of  quinia :  Ounces.  Value. 

1884 712  $1,038 

1885 5,435  1,868 

Cinchonidia :  Ounces.  Value. 

1884 381,885  $206,405 

1885 478,747  220,846 

A  New  York  firm  1  has  recently  introduced  upon  the  mar- 
ket quintessential  oils;  the  odorous  principle  of  these  oils  is 
due  to  the  stearoptens  or  camphors,  which  readily  separate 
from  the  more  volatile  portions. 

It  has  been  suggested,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  gum  arabic, 
to  introduce  upon  the  market  a  gum  2  from  a  Mexican  tree, 
called  the  mesquite.  This  gum  exudes  from  the  stem  and 
branches  during  the  summer  months.  The  analysis  of  this 
gum  offers  several  interesting  features:  amongst  others  its 
solutions  can  be  combined  with  basic  lead  acetate  and  ferric 
salts,  without  being  precipitated,  and,  it  is  suggested,  for  this 
reason,  as  more  applicable  in  medicine  than  gum  arabic.  It 
is  probable  that,  in  time,  gum  mesquite  will  become  a  com- 
mercial article  of  importance. 

We  are  indebted  to  plants  for  our  tea,  coffee,  and  chocolate 
supply,  and  these  articles  may  be  reckoned  among  our  foods; 
for  one  or  all  are  used  by  every  people. 

In  Spain,  chocolate  is  looked  upon  as  a  necessity.  The 
Spaniard  may  be  seen  making  his  early  breakfast  with  a  slice 
of  bread  spread  with  a  thick  paste  of  chocolate.  The  smiling- 
faced  "cocinero"  told  me  how  he  prepared  it,  by  carefully 

1  Fritzsche  Brothers. 

2  "Products  of  the  Mesquite,"  by  H.  J.  Schuchard.   Amer.  Jour.  Pharm., 
November,  1885,  p.  542. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  191 

melting  the  solid  chocolate  cake  to  the  desired  consistency.  A 
cup  of  steaming  hot  goat's  milk  is  offered  to  the  traveler  to 
mix  with  this  chocolate,  if  he  is  unable  to  take  it  straight. 

"When  Cortez  and  the  Spaniards  entered  the  vast  empire 
of  Montezuma,  they  found  the  use  of  cocoa  or  chocolate,  as  a 
beverage,  common.  The  emperor  alone  drank  it  flavored  with 
vanilla  from  a  golden  cup."  1  The  Spaniards  very  jealously 
guarded  as  a  secret  the  mode  of  chocolate  manufacture,  and 
were  able  to  retain  the  monopoly  of  the  trade  for  many  years. 

Theobromine,  caffeine,  and  theine  are  the  alkaloids  which 
give  cocoa,  coffee,  and  tea  their  exhilarating  properties.  They 
owe  their  aroma  to  certain  volatile  oils,  which  in  the  case  of 
cocoa  is  probably  developed  by  roasting. 

Tea 2  is  of  the  utmost  importance  as  an  article  of  consump- 
tion, and  far  exceeds  in  demand  cocoa  or  coffee.  Tea  can  be 
grown  in  a  wide  range  of  climate;  in  Pekin,  with  winters  of 
Russian  severity,  to  Canton  and  Macao.  Any  country  having 
a  long  and  hot  summer  and  a  cold  winter  can  grow  tea.  The 
proportion  per  head  of  consumption  for  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  during  1875  was  4.44  pounds. 

The  very  best  workers  in  gathering  the  tea  leaves  rarely  earn 
as  much  as  sixpence  a  day,  and  until  other  nations  can  raise 
tea  for  six  cents  a  pound,  they  cannot  compete  with  China 
in  its  production. 

Guarana,  a  product  allied  to  cocoa,  and  mate*,  or  Paraguay 
tea,  are  also  used.  The  same  or  allied  alkaloids  prevail  in  all 
the  principal  substances  employed  for  these  beverages  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world.  After  tea,  there  is  scarcely  any  other 
staple  of  commerce  used  for  dietetic  beverages  more  gener- 
ally acceptable  with  all  classes  than  coffee. 

The  statistics  of  cocoa,  tea,  and  coffee:8 — 

IMPORTED  INTO  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

Tea :  Pounds.  Value. 

l884 65,774,234        $13,504,798.56 

l885 69,820,172          i3,725,38°-75 

1  Tropical  Agriculture,  by  P.  L.  Simmonds,  London,  1877,  p.  2. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  79. 

8  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department. 


192         PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Coffee :  Pounds.  Value. 

1884 532,514,850        $49,685,689.30 

1885 572,222,841          46,723,290.16 

Leaves  and  shells  of  crude  cocoa :  Pounds.  Value. 

1884 12,263,948          $1,673,088.00 

1885 10,300,078  1,332,375.00 

The  above  facts,  including  the  tables  of  statistics,  show 
the  extent  of  our  dependence  on  the  presence  of  chemical 
compounds  in  the  various  plant  sources  from  which  we  derive 
many  of  our  supplies. 

The  consideration  of  the  cereal  products  of  the  United 
States  and  our  domestic  sugar  supply  in  relation  to  this  subject, 
seems  of  sufficient  importance  to  detain  us  for  a  few  minutes. 

"The  total  production1  of  the  six  principal  cereal  grains  of 
the  United  States  for  the  census  year  amounts  to  2,697,962,456 
bushels,  an  average  of  58.8  bushels  per  head  for  the  whole 
population.  The  total  breadth  of  cultivation  and  the  amount 
of  product  of  each  of  the  grains  is  as  follows :  — 

Grain.  Acres.        Production,  Bushels. 

Corn 62,368,869  1,754,861,535 

Wheat 35,430,052  459,479,505 

Oats 16,144,593  407,858,999 

Barley 1,997,7*7  44,"3»495 

Rye 1,842,303  19,831,595 

Buckwheat 848,389  11,817,327 

Total 118,631,923  2,697,962,456 

"Whether  considered  in  respect  to  breadth  of  cultivation, 
total  product,  or  average  production  per  head  of  the  whole 
population,  these  figures  place  the  United  States  at  the  head 
of  the  grain-producing  countries  of  the  world."  .  .  .  "The 
tables  of  cereal  production,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
tables  of  other  production,  and  these  compared  with  the 
returns  of  previous  census  years,  show  that  agriculture  con- 

1  Report  on  the  Cereal  Production  of  the  United  States,  Dept.  of  the  Interior, 
Census  Office,  1884,  p.  381. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  193 

tinues  to  be  the  leading  productive  industry  of  the  country, 
and  cereal  production  the  most  prominent  feature  of  this  in- 
dustry. .  .  . 

"The  increase  in  grain  production,  since  the  previous  cen- 
sus enumeration,  is  in  part  due  to  the  cultivation  of  new  lands 
in  the  West  and  in  the  Northwest,  but  more  largely  due  to 
gain  in  farming  regions  already  occupied  in  1870.  The  popu- 
lar belief  that  the  chief  increase  in  production  and  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  grain  exports  is  due  to  the  cropping  of  new  and 
cheap  lands,  is  not  sustained  by  the  census  enumeration. 
The  tables  of  production  show  that  the  most  of  the  grain  is 
in  regions  some  time  in  cultivation,  and  on  lands  ranging  in 
value  from  $30  per  acre  upwards.  .  .  . 

"The  actual  production  of  58.8  bushels  per  head  of  total 
population  shows  that  the  United  States  must  be  a  grain- 
exporting  country,  notwithstanding  the  enormously  large 
consumption  by  its  population.  The  grain  and  flour  exports l 
for  the  five  years  ending  June  30,  1880,  amount  as  follows:  — 

Wheat  and  corn 833,692,207  bushels 

Flour  and  corn  meal 24,850,316        " 

Total  value $892,788,117 

"The  profitable  cultivation2  of  cereals  on  a  large  scale  is 
more  dependent  upon  climate  than  upon  soil.  Rocks  of  va- 
rious geological  ages  underlie  the  different  portions  of  the 
chief  grain-producing  regions.  The  immediate  influence  of 
the  underlying  rocks  is,  however,  greater  in  the  southern  and 
western  portions  of  the  United  States  than  in  the  northern 
and  eastern."  The  production  and  distribution  of  grain  in 
the  United  States  is  influenced  largely  by  the  physical  charac- 
ter of  the  soil.  "The  portions  producing  the  bulk  of  the  grain 
have  soils  of  reasonable  fertility,  but  are  also  those  which 
are  easily  tilled,  and  upon  which  the  best  machinery  and  labor- 
saving  appliances  can  be  most  readily  used." 

"The  acreage  and  crop  3  of  wheat,  in  1879,  amounted  to 
35,430,052  acres,  459,579,505  bushels;  the  acreage  being  29.7 

1  Cereal  Report,  p.  383.  2  Ibid.,  p.  396. 

3  Ibid.,  pp.  440-442. 


i94         PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

per  cent,  of  all  the  land  and  cereals,  and  the  product  about 
9.2  bushels  per  head  of  total  population.  .  .  . 

"There  is  but  little  wheat  land  east  of  the  Hudson  River, 
and  although  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  produce  consider- 
able wheat,  the  great  bulk  of  the  wheat  country  lies  west  of 
those  states,  beyond  the  seventy-seventh  meridian  and  the 
Appalachian  chain  of  mountains,  and  north  of  the  Ohio 
River.  .  .  . 

"The  successful  cultivation  of  wheat,  in  a  commercial  sense, 
is  determined  by  a  complicated  set  of  conditions."  In  an  agri- 
cultural sense,  "the  yield  and  quality  of  the  crop  practically 
depend  upon  but  five  conditions,  —  the  climate,  the  soil, 
the  variety  cultivated,  the  mode  of  cultivation,  and  the  lia- 
bility to  destruction  by  insects."  Chemistry  has  to  do,  how- 
ever, with  only  the  soil  and  the  variety  of  grain  related.  The 
chemical  composition  of  the  grain  and  its  value  as  a  bread 
plant  not  only  vary  greatly  in  the  different  varieties,  but  also 
in  the  same  variety,  from  year  to  year,  and  on  different  soils. 

Indian  corn  x  stands  first  in  amount  of  the  cereal  productions 
of  the  country.  This  cereal  is  more  generally  distributed 
over  the  country  than  any  other;  the  place  of  its  greatest  pro- 
duction is  on  the  fertile  prairies  and  river  bottoms  of  the  West, 
and  north  of  the  thirty-sixth  parallel  of  latitude.  A  compara- 
tively few  states  2  produce  the  bulk  of  the  crop,  the  four  states 
of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Indiana  producing  upward  of 
fifty-two  per  cent. 

"The  chemical  composition  3  of  Indian  corn  varies  more 
than  wheat,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  vast  number  and 
great  difference  of  its  varieties.  As  a  whole,  it  is  not  quite  so 
rich  in  albuminoids."  It  varies  also  much  more  in  the  amount 
of  fibre.  The  average  proportion  of  starch  is  less  than  in  wheat, 
but  the  most  noticeable  difference  is  in  the  amount  of  oil. 
Indian  corn  when  in  the  "milk"  is  a  most  nutritious  and 
excellent  food.  "The  chemical  analysis  of  green  corn  shows 
respectively  fourteen  to  fifteen  per  cent,  albuminoids,  ...  an 
amount  equal  to  that  in  the  very  best  wheat  flour."  4 

1  Cereal  Report,  p.  470.  2  Ibid.,  p.  471. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  482.  *  Ibid.,  p.  484. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  195 

Oats  *  stand  the  third  cereal  of  importance  in  the  United 
States.  Maine,  Vermont,  New  York,  and  Wyoming  raise 
more  oats  than  any  other  cereal.  The  muscle-producing  value 
of  oats  depends  upon,  the  amount  of  their  albuminoids.  The 
average  composition  of  some  American  oats  on  analysis 
showed  a  higher  percentage  of  albuminoids  than  the  richest 
wheat  flours.  The  amount  of  fat  in  oats  ranges  from  four 
to  nearly  six  per  cent. 

Barley  2  is  successfully  cultivated  in  a  wider  range  of  cli- 
mate than  any  other  cereal.  It  is  the  most  hardy  of  all  the 
cereals,  and  it  grows  in  the  north  nearly  to  the  point  where 
all  cultivation  ceases.  On  the  other  hand,  barley  flourishes 
well  in  semi-tropical  countries,  and  in  this  country  the  region 
of  its  greatest  production  is  California.  In  Arizona  and  Ne- 
vada, more  of  barley  than  any  other  cereal  was  grown  in  the 
census  year. 

Rye  3  has  become  of  very  minor  importance  in  the  United 
States,  in  comparison  with  other  cereals.  It  can  be  grown  upon 
very  poor  soils.  In  Europe,  for  many  ages,  it  was  the  prin- 
cipal bread-stuff  of  the  people,  for  it  could  be  cultivated  on 
soils  too  poor  to  grow  wheat.  Pennsylvania  has,  at  each  cen- 
sus return,  been  the  leading  state  in  total  production;  it  is 
now  followed  by  New  York. 

From  analyses,  rye  in  the  kernel  is  less  nutritious  than  wheat, 
and  the  deficiencies  in  their  respective  flours  is  still  greater. 
Wheat  flours  average  about  eleven  per  cent,  of  albuminoids, 
while  rye  flours  average  at  about  six  per  cent.  On  the  other 
hand,  rye  bran  is  richer  in  albuminoids  than  wheat  bran. 

The  popular  belief  that  buckwheat 4  is  less  strengthening 
and  more  fattening  than  wheat,  is  founded  on  a  chemical  rea- 
son; for  the  percentage  of  albuminoids  is  low,  ranging  from 
four  to  eight  per  cent.  The  starch  is  in  larger  amount  than 
in  wheat,  the  percentage  of  oil  being  about  the  same.  The 
peculiar  aroma  of  buckwheat  cakes  is  probably  derived  from 
the  presence  of  an  essential  oil  decomposed  by  heat. 

Chemistry  plays  an  important  part  in  the  cereal  production 

1  Cereal  Report,  p.  491.  2  Ibid.,  p.  497. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  502.  4  Ibid.,  p.  508. 


1 96         PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  our  country.  The  United  States  Agricultural  Department 
furnishes  several  reports  on  this  subject.1  The  analyses  have 
been  conducted  to  show  the  effect  of  environment  on  the  grain. 
The  albuminoids,  fat,  and  ash  composition  of  American 
grain  are  given  and  compared  with  foreign  crops,  and  the 
average  composition  of  flour  from  different  sections  of  the 
country  has  been  studied. 

The  importance  of  chemical  analyses  in  this  connection 
is  evident,  for  the  relative  chemical  composition  of  a  cereal 
decides  its  nutritive  value,  and  this  information  is  essential 
to  the  farmer  in  the  selection  of  the  kinds  of  grain  for  sowing. 
The  percentage  of  chemical  composition  of  grains  varies  in 
crops  grown  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  and  furnishes 
a  scientific  basis  for  careful  selection  of  climate  and  soil. 

Agricultural  chemical  analysis  is  usually  conducted  to  show 
the  aggregate  percentages  of  groups  of  substances.  All  the 
nitrogenous  compounds  are  determined  together  and  classed 
as  the  albuminoids;  starch,  gum,  sugar,  and  similar  sub- 
stances, as  carbohydrates.  Oils,  waxes,  and  allied  com- 
pounds are  classed  as  fats.  Special  compounds  existing  in 
minute  quantities,  but  belonging  to  one  of  these  classes,  would 
fail  to  be  detected  in  such  a  general  plan  of  analysis;  such 
compounds  might  have  great  economic  interest.  Careful 
and  detailed  plant  analysis  can  be  the  only  means  to  discover 
and  isolate  these  principles. 

The  sources  of  sugar  supply  to  the  world  are  from  a  few 
plants;  the  beet,  maple,  sugar-cane,  and  sorghum.  In  our 
country,  during  1883-84,  beet- sugar  was  all  made  at  Alvarado,2 
California.  Sugar  manufactured  from  the  beet  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  is  an  assured  success.  The  climate  and  soil  of  northern 
California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  Territory  are  especially 
suitable  to  this  plant.  A  vast  range  of  territory  in  our  Northern 
States  would  be  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet. 
The  causes  of  past  failures  to  establish  a  beet-sugar  industry 

1  Buls.  No.  I,  No.  4,  No.  9,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  by  Clifford  Richard- 
son. 

2  "Our  Sugar  Supply,"  by  H.  W.  Wiley.    From  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc. 
of  Washington,  January,  1887. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS   AS   AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  197 

may  be  remedied,  depending  upon  more  scientific  methods 
of  agriculture  and  chemical  methods.  Maple  sugar  is  costly; 
the  trees  yielding  this  product  are  of  slow  growth,  and  their 
territory  of  cultivation  limited.  An  adequate  supply  cannot 
be  expected  from  this  source,  nor  from  the  sugar-cane  of  the 
South  during  the  present  stage  of  this  industry. 

If  it  is  admitted  that  the  prosperity  of  a  country  is  shown 
by  its  advance  in  agriculture,  then  the  onward  march  should 
be  encouraged  by  every  means  in  our  power.  We  should  look 
to  our  own  acres  for  our  sugar  supply,  since  this  can  become 
practicable,  and  not  abroad.  The  encouragement  of  a  sugar 
industry  in  this  country  is  of  importance,  when  it  is  considered 
that  over  $100,000,000  is  sent  out  of  the  country  for  raw  sugar, 
annually. 

The  problem  of  how  to  reduce  our  revenue  does  not  apply 
to  this  industry;  in  a  recent  letter  on  a  plan  of  tariff  re- 
vision, Mr.  E.  H.  Ammidown  says:  " Legislation  to  reduce 
the  duty  on  sugar  should  be  deferred  until  the  conditions 
and  prospects  of  the  whole  sugar  industry  have  been  more 
carefully  investigated  and  are  better  understood.  An  indus- 
try which,  if  established,  would  produce  $150,000,000  in  value 
of  a  staple  article  of  food  required  in  every  American  house- 
hold, and  save  $100,000,000  now  or  in  the  immediate  future, 
annually  paid  to  foreign  producers,  —  such  an  industry,  with 
the  example  of  France  and  Germany  to  encourage  us,  is  of 
too  serious  importance  to  this  nation  to  be  treated  by  the 
national  legislature  otherwise  than  with  the  utmost  caution 
and  most  cautious  deliberation." 

The  following  statistics  will  show  the  sugar  and  molasses 
importation:  — 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  i886/  free  of  duty  from 
the  Hawaiian  Islands :  — 

Amount.  Value. 

Molasses 61,171  gallons.  $7,786.00 

Sugar 191,623,175  pounds.      $9,174,612.00 


Total $9,166,826.00 

1  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treas.  Dept.  1886. 


198         PLANT  AND   ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

Dutiable.                                    Amount.  Value. 

Molasses 39,018,637  gallons  $5,587,884.00 

Sugar 2,498,258,590  pounds  71,606,918.00 

Sugar  candy,  etc 23,333.00 

Total $77,218,135.00 

Value  of  all  imported  sugars  and  molasses. . .     $86,392,747.00 

The  value  of  all  imported  sugars  and  molasses, 

for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1885 76,738,719.00 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1884 103,884,275.00 

The  total  value r  of  domestic  sugars  and  molas- 
ses amounted  to 43,037,409.03 

The  amount  of  money  sent  out  of  the  country 
during  the  last  year  to  meet  the  demands  of 
sugar  consumption  was 135,000,000.00  2 

The  above  figures  show  the  amount  of  sugar  and  molasses 
consumed  in  the  United  States  annually.  If  we  are  to  obtain 
all  of  these  products  from  our  own  lands,  it  is  a  reasonable 
question  to  ask,  how  is  this  to  be  accomplished  ? 

Former  analyses  show  that  the  yield  of  sugar  from  Louisiana 
cane  is  less  than  from  cane  grown  in  the  tropics.  The  future 
prosperity  of  Louisiana  growers  need  not  suffer  from  this 
poorer  juice.  The  recent  experiments  at  Fort  Scott 3  demon- 
strated that  a  given  weight  of  cane,  without  notably  increasing 
the  cost  of  manufacture,  yielded  thirty  per  cent,  more  sugar 
than  had  ever  been  made  before.  The  Southern  sugar  in- 
dustry will  thrive  with  the  encouragement  of  a  greater  sugar 
yield,  and  by  the  introduction  of  more  scientific  methods  of 
growing  and  manufacture. 

Of  late  years  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  Sorghum  sac- 
char  alum  has  attracted  attention.  So  far,  as  a  business  project, 
it  has  proved  a  financial  failure.  From  the  recent  chemical 
reports  of  the  Agricultural  Bureau,  under  proper  conditions 
of  cultivation,  this  cereal  promises  to  become  a  profitable 
source  of  sugar  supply. 

I  give  a  few  of  the  chemical  results  of  the  late  Fort  Scott 

1  Bui.  No.  5,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  pp.  7,  8. 

2  From  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc.  of  Washington,  p.  1 6. 

3  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1886.    H.  W.  Wiley,  Chemist. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  199 

experiments.1   Up  to  October  ist,  the  mean  composition  of 
the  chips  entering  the  diffusion  battery  was :  — 

Per  cent. 

Sucrose 8.76 

Glucose 3-28 

Soluble  solids 14.88 

Available  sugar 2.64 

Following  that  date :  — 

Per  cent. 

Sucrose 7.02 

Glucose 4.16 

Soluble  solids 14.89 

Available  sugar  minus 0.85 

With  such  raw  material  it  was  found  to  be  impossible  to 
manufacture  sugar  successfully. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  these  discouraging  analyses  that 
sorghum  is  not  capable  of  becoming  a  good  sugar-producing 
plant.  Many  samples  of  cane  brought  fresh  from  the  fields  or 
from  protected  parts  of  piles  of  cane  cut  for  a  day,  showed 
a  remarkably  high  percentage  of  sugar. 

On  September  3oth,  a  sample  of  cane  from  the  carrier 
showed :  — 

Per  cent. 

Sucrose I2-39 

Glucose 3.76 

Total  solids 17.8 

Available  sugar 6.98 

Such  cane  would  yield  140  pounds  of  sugar  per  ton. 

An  October  cane  cut  one  day  gave  an  average  of  176.6 
pounds  of  sugar  per  ton. 

Dozens  of  samples  of  cane  during  the  season  would  have 
given  over  100  pounds  of  sugar  per  ton.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  sorghum  cane  can  be  grown  and  delivered  at  the 
factory  for  $2  a  ton,  the  importance  of  these  figures  cannot 
be  overestimated.  If  sorghum  can  be  produced  which  will 

1  Bui.  No.  14. 


200       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

contain  five  per  cent,  available  sugar  from  the  whole  crop, 
the  future  of  the  industry  is  a  most  promising  one. 

Until  the  variations  of  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the 
juice  can  be  controlled,  sorghum  cannot  be  considered  a  profit- 
able crop  for  sugar  production. 

It  is  purely  a  question  of  more  scientific  agriculture.  As  far 
as  the  processes  are  concerned,  the  problem  of  extracting 
the  sugar  from  the  cane  has  been  solved. 

To  insure  the  financial  success  it  will  be  important  to  se- 
lect a  suitable  situation  of  climate  and  soil.  Before  embarking 
upon  a  large  money  outlay,  the  scientific  representative  of  a 
company  should  experimentally  grow,  under  trial  conditions, 
sorghum  cane  in  the  localities  where  it  is  proposed  to  start 
the  industry. 

On  a  broad  scale  the  northern  and  southern  limits  have 
been  already  defined.  Seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  the  iso- 
therm *  for  the  best  sorghum  sugar  production  for  June,  July, 
and  August ;  but  cane  for  syrup  will  grow  north  of  that  line. 

At  a  comparatively  small  expenditure  the  question  of  cli- 
mate for  special  localities  and  other  conditions  could  be  tested 
by  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  plant,  whose  juices  respond  as 
quickly  to  favorable  or  adverse  conditions  as  the  mercury  to 
heat  and  cold. 

Dr.  Wiley  2  recently,  in  his  annual  address  as  President  of 
the  Washington  Chemical  Society,  said:  "The  hope  of  sor- 
ghum is  not  in  new  methods  and  new  machinery,  it  is  in  the 
skill  and  patience  of  the  agronomist.  Wise  selection  of  seed, 
intensive  culture,  judicious  fertilization  —  these  are  the  factors 
that  can  make  the  sorghum  sufficiently  saccharifacient." 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  refinements  of  plant  analysis  are 
destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  this  connection.  Chemi- 
cal analysis  of  chosen  seed  would  ensure  a  wise  selection  for 
planting.  Analysis  of  the  cane  and  juice  would  show  the  re- 
sults of  experimental  culture.  For  experiment,  the  proportional 
constituents  of  the  soil  may  be  varied,  to  determine  if  the 
proportion  of  chemical  constituents  of  the  cane,  detrimental 

1  Bui.  No.  3,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  oj  Agr. 

2  "Our  Sugar  Supply." 


PLANT  ANALYSIS   AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  201 

or  favorable  to  the  production  of  richer  juice,  may  be  con- 
trolled. 

Analyses  would  show  what  external  chemical  conditions 
are  requisite  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth,  and  if  upon  these 
depends  a  larger  sugar  yield.  Series  of  experiments  at  different 
stages  of  growth  undertaken  to  discover  the  chemical  pro- 
cesses attending  growth,  maturing,  and  ripening  of  the  canes, 
under  trial  conditions,  are  necessary  to  be  known  by  the  chemi- 
cal representative  of  the  producer. 

Plant  chemistry,  in  applying  this  knowledge  to  practical 
agricultural  ends,  will  fulfill  a  high  aim.  It  may  be  suggested 
as  a  worthy  object  of  agricultural  experiment  to  discover 
what  parts  of  the  residual  sorghum,  juice,  and  cane,  after  the 
sugar  extraction,  may  serve  a  practical  end.  A  profitable 
utilization  of  these  products  would  assist  the  improved  ma- 
chinery and  new  chemical  processes  in  lessening  the  cost  of 
sugar  production.  Paper  l  has  been  manufactured  from  the 
cellulose  of  the  sorghum  cane.  Future  experiments  will  deter- 
mine the  separation  and  economic  interest  of  other  constitu- 
ents. 

Very  many  dye  substances  of  vegetable  origin  are  used 
industrially.  It  would  detain  us  too  long  to  enumerate  the 
list,  and  I  shall  select  a  few  of  the  well-known  ones  for  illus- 
tration: — 

The  dye-woods  imported  in  a  crude  state  are  as  follows: 2 

Camwood :  Tons.  Value. 

1884 659.82  $65,461.00 

1885 730.00  68,721.00 

Fustic :  Tons.  Value. 

1884 11,811  $177,830.00 

1885 8,090  119,689.00 

Logwood :  Tons.  Value. 

1884 55,921.59  $875,291.00 

1885 56,507.80  904,205.25 

1  "Sorghum  Saccharatum,"  by  C.  A.  Goessmann.    From   Trans.  N.  Y. 
State  Agr.  Soc.,  1861.  Bui.  XLI,  N.  J.  Agr.  Experimental  Station,  1887,  p.  23. 
Bui.  No.  14,  Ghent.  Div.  Dept.  oj  Agr.,  p.  56. 

2  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treas.  Dept.,  1885. 


202        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  madder  plant  was  formerly  grown  to  a  large  extent  in 
many  countries,  and  in  France  *  large  tracts  of  land  were  given 
up  to  its  cultivation.  "Madder2  owes  its  importance  to  the 
beauty  and  fastness  of  the  tints  it  yields,  and  to  the  fact  that  by 
a  variation  of  the  mordant  used,  it  produces  rose  pink,  black, 
violet,  lilac,  and  puce  colors."  The  character  of  the  soil  where 
the  madder  grows  affects  the  color  of  the  dye.  The  roots 
grown  in  a  rich  clay  soil  exhibit  a  rose-pink  color;  under  other 
conditions,  a  deep  red  coloration. 

Alizarin,  the  chief  coloring-matter  of  madder,  is  now  pro- 
duced artificially  from  coal  tar  in  large  quantities,  though  the 
madder  is  especially  in  request  for  woolen  dyeing.  This 
plant,  which  yielded  such  large  revenues  to  the  growers,  is 
replaced  by  a  cheaper  manufactured  product.  Very  likely 
we  should  not  have  discovered  the  synthesis  of  its  valuable 
dye,  if  our  attention  had  not  first  been  directed  to  it  in  the 
plant. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  coal  tar  is  undoubtedly  of  vege- 
table origin,  the  many  brilliant  dyes  derived  from  this  source 
are  only  evidences  of  what  plant  chemistry  could  have  found 
in  the  carboniferous  ages. 

The  following  statistics  show :  — 

The  amount 3  of  imported  madder : 

Pounds.  Value. 

1884 253,385  $13,521.00 

Ground  or  prepared  madder : 

Pounds.  Value. 

1884 1,458,313  $111,456.00 

1885 1,211,370  80,628.00 

The  natural  or  artificial  alizarin : 

Pounds.  Value. 

1884 778,660  $296,123.00 

1885 1,470,864  404,002.00 

1  Tropical  Agriculture,  by  P.  L.  Simmonds.  London,  1877,  p.  369. 

2  Hand-Book  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing,  by  W.  Crookes.  London,  1874, 
p.  228. 

3  Bureau  of  Statistics,  1885. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  203 

Total  value  madder  and  alizarin : 

1884 $421,100.00 

1885 484,630.00 

Many  species  of  plants  grown  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
but  especially  the  Indigofera,  yield  a  glucoside  called  indican, 
which,  under  the  influence  of  dilute  mineral  acids  and  certain 
ferments,  breaks  up,  yielding  indigo  blue  and  a  substance  re- 
sembling glucose. 

"Indigo  *  has  undoubtedly  been  known  in  Asia  from  a  very 
remote  period  of  antiquity,  since  there  exist,  in  very  ancient 
records  written  in  the  Sanskrit  language,  descriptions  of  its 
mode  of  preparation  mainly  not  different  from  the  methods 
yet  in  use."  The  manner  of  cutting  the  plant  and  extracting 
the  indigo  is  not  the  same  in  all  countries.  In  India,  the  plants 
are  grown  from  seeds  which  are  sown  in  the  fall  and  spring, 
according  to  the  kind  of  plant.  As  soon  as  the  young  plants 
are  sufficiently  forward  they  are  replanted  in  regular  rows. 
The  flower  buds  are  pulled  off  before  they  are  fully  developed, 
experience  having  taught  that  by  so  doing  the  leaves  of  the 
shrub  become  larger  and  yield  more  indigo,  the  coloring-matter 
being  chiefly  present  in  the  leaves. 

The  indigo  of  commerce  is  a  blue  dyestuff  extracted  by 
fermentation.  Other  plants  2  used  occasionally  for  the  ex- 
traction of  indigo  are  more  frequently  employed  directly  in 
dyeing;  they  belong  to  the  Polygonacea  family.  These  plants 
are  from  India,  China,  Central  Africa,  and  South  America, 
and  they  can  be  acclimated  in  all  warm  countries.  In  the 
mode  of  indigo  manufacture  3  two  processes  are  employed.  In 
the  one  the  dry  leaves  are  used,  in  the  other  the  green  leaves. 
This  is  the  one  in  most  common  use.  When  the  plant  begins 
to  flower  it  is  cut  down  at  about  six  inches  from  the  ground 
and  carried  to  the  steeping  vats  with  as  little  delay  as  possible, 
strewn  horizontally  in  the  vats,  and  pressed  down  by  means 

1  Hand-Book  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing,  by  W.  Crookes,  p.  447. 

2  Matieres  Premieres  Organiqites,  par  Pennetier,  p.  513. 

3  Ibid.)  p.  516.    Bui.  de  la  Societe  Industrielle  de  Mulhouse,  vol.  xxviii,  p. 

307- 


204        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  beams  fixed  into  side  posts,  bamboo  being  placed  under  the 
beams.  Water  is  immediately  run  in,  just  sufficient  to  cover 
the  plant.  The  pure  water  from  the  Ganges  is  especially 
sought  for  in  these  manufactories,  and  many  indigo  factories 
line  the  river  banks.  The  time  for  steeping  depends  much  on 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  can  only  be  learned 
by  experience  and  careful  watching  of  the  vats,  but  in  close, 
sultry  weather,  with  the  thermometer  at  96°  in  the  shade, 
eleven  or  twelve  hours  are  sufficient.  In  cooler  weather  more 
time  is  requisite. 

When  fermentation  is  established,  the  surface  of  the  vat  is 
covered  with  a  violet  scum.  The  liquid  is  drawn  off  through 
plug  holes  in  the  wall  of  the  vat.  The  fecula  at  the  bottom 
is  then  removed  to  the  boiler.  It  is  brought  to  the  boiling 
point  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  kept  there  for  five  or  six 
hours.  While  boiling  it  is  stirred  to  keep  the  indigo  from  burn- 
ing, and  skimmed  with  a  perforated  ladle.  When  sufficiently 
boiled  it  is  run  off  to  the  straining  table, where  it  remains 
twelve  or  fifteen  hours  draining.  It  is  then  taken  to  the  presses 
and  gradually  pressed.  This  process  takes  twelve  hours.  It 
is  then  ready  to  be  taken  out,  cut,  stamped,  and  laid  in  the 
drying  house  to  dry. 

In  the  manufacture  of  indigo  the  ordinary  processes  of 
fermentation,  drawing-off  the  liquor,  beating,  and  collecting 
the  fecula,  are  generally  well  known  and  are  followed  with 
but  trifling  variation  in  different  provinces  and  manufactories 
in  India.  The  main  points  appear  to  be  the  watching  and  the 
soaking  of  the  plant  so  as  to  be  able  to  tap  off  the  infused 
liquid  at  exactly  the  right  point  of  fermentation,  and  next  to 
beat  the  liquid  in  the  second  vat  long  enough. 

Indigotin  as  it  is  contained  in  the  vegetable  tissues  is  color- 
less, but  it  becomes  blue  on  contact  with  air.  If  it  is  desired 
to  change  indigo  blue  to  indigo  white,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
place  it  in  the  presence  of  a  deoxidizing  and  alkaline  liquid, 
but  as  soon  as  air  is  admitted  its  blue  color  is  resumed. 

The  dyeing  of  fabrics  is  based  upon  the  transformation  of 
indigo  blue  into  soluble  indigo  white.  The  colorless  matter 
is  placed  on  the  stuff,  which  becomes  blue  by  exposure.  The 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  205 

solubility  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid  is  utilized  for  blue  dyeing 
of  wools. 

Indigo  has  been  made  artificially  by  several  methods,  though 
the  process  so  far  is  too  expensive  to  allow  the  manufactured 
compound  to  replace  the  commercial  supply  from  plants. 

The  table  of  statistics  is  as  follows :  — 

Amount  of  indigo  l  imported :  Pounds.  Value. 

1884 2,674,062        $2,267,048.00 

1885 3,035,934          2,007,066.00 

Artificial  indigo :  Pounds.  Value. 

1884 None. 


1885 3,300  $3,600.00 

The  dye  commonly  known  as  logwood  has  been  cultivated 
in  Jamaica2  since  1715,  and  has  been  known  and  used  in 
Europe  from  a  short  period  after  the  discovery  of  America. 
The  commercial  supply  of  the  dye  is  from  Hamatoocylin 
campechianum,  a  tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Legumi- 
nosce.  It  is  the  wood  of  the  tree  which  is  used,  and  is  met  in 
commerce  in  the  shape  of  large,  irregular  blocks. 

The  only  other  tree  besides  logwood  in  which  haematoxylin 
so  far  has  been  discovered  is  the  Saraca  indica,  of  the  same 
natural  order. 

I  stated 3  before  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  in  Nov- 
ember, the  discovery  of  this  principle  in  my  analysis  of  the 
bark  of  the  Saraca  indica. 

The  Saraca  indica  4  is  called  in  India  the  asok  or  asoka 
tree,  and  it  is  said  when  this  tree  is  in  full  blossom,  there  is 
nothing  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  which  affords  a  more  beauti- 
ful sight.  Frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  plant  in  Hindoo 
mythology,  and  the  bark  is  much  used  by  native  physicians 
in  some  diseases. 

1  Bureau  of  Statistics,  1885.  2  Crookes,  p.  342. 

3  "On  Haematoxylin  in  the  Bark  of  Saraca  Indica,"  by  Helen  C.  De  S. 
Abbott.  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences,  Philadelphia,  November  30,  1886.     See 
p.  171. 

4  The  Materia  Medi-ca  of  the  Hindus,  by  Udoy  Chaud  Dutt.    Calcutta, 
1877. 


206        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

I  undertook  the  analysis  of  this  bark  at  the  request  of  Messrs. 
Parke,  Davis  &  Co.,  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  who  furnished 
me  with  a  liberal  supply  of  the  drug.  The  coloring  prin- 
ciple exists  in  the  bark  in  two  or  more  conditions,  as  haema- 
toxylin  and  as  oxidized  products.  The  former  was  separated 
as  yellow  crystals,  analogous  in  form  to  haematoxylin  crystals 
from  the  true  logwood.  The  alcoholic  extract  of  the  bark  con- 
tained about  eighteen  per  cent,  of  a  red-colored  substance 
which  agreed  in  color  and  dye  tests  with  like  constituents 
found  in  logwood.  Mordanted  cotton  fabric  was  dyed  with 
haematoxylin  from  Saraca  bark,  and  presented  the  charac- 
teristic logwood  dye  colors. 

The  extracts  of  Saraca  indica  bark  containing  its  coloring 
principle  were  tested  with  various  reagents,1  and  it  was  ob- 
served that  the  reactions  agreed  with  haematoxylin  colors, 
and  in  no  case  with  those  of  brazilin. 

The  bark  of  the  commercial  logwood  tree  is  not  used  for 
extracting  the  dye,  the  wood  of  the  tree  being  employed  for 
this  purpose.  I  determined  the  presence  of  a  small  quantity 
of  haematoxylin  in  the  logwood  bark,  and  obtained  with  its 
extracts  the  same  reaction  without  alkalies  and  other  reagents 
as  with  the  other  wood  extracts.  But  owing  to  the  smaller 
percentage  of  dye  in  the  bark  of  the  specimens  examined, 
the  colors  were  less  intense.  In  the  case  of  the  Saraca  indica 
bark,  the  colors  were  very  brilliant,  and  certainly  indicated 
the  presence  of  a  large  proportion  of  coloring-matter  in  it. 
It  would  be  of  interest  to  secure  specimens  of  the  wood  of 
Saraca,  in  order  to  determine  if  it  contains  the  coloring 
principle,  and  should  this  be  so,  if  it  exists  in  sufficiently  large 
quantities  to  warrant  its  introduction  as  a  new  source  of  this 
commercial  product. 

Last  summer  2  I  extracted  from  a  Honduras  plant,  called 
"  chichipate,"  a  yellow  dye.  It  yielded  with  mordanted  wool 
fabrics,  colors  somewhat  resembling  those  yielded  by  fustic 

1  S.  P.  Sadtler  and  W.  L.  Rowland,    Amer.   Jour.   Pharm.,    February, 
1881. 

2  "Preliminary   Analysis   of   a   Honduras   Plant,    named   ' Chichipate.' " 
Paper  read  before  the  A.  A.  A.  S  ,  at  Buffalo,  August,  1886. 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE  207 

wood.  A  plant l  was  analyzed  in  the  laboratory  of  Parke, 
Davis  &  Co.,  named  Cascara  amarga,  from  which  a  new  alka- 
loid, picramnine,  was  separated.  This  alkaloid  is  like  berberin 
in  its  properties.  Specimens  of  this  plant  were  lately  forwarded 
to  me,  and  there  is  every  indication  of  the  relationship  of 
identity  of  "  chichipate "  and  Cascara  amarga.  This  incident 
is  significant  as  deciding  by  means  of  chemical  analysis  the 
identity  of  plants  under  distinct  names  from  different  regions. 
No  analysis  under  the  name  of  "chichipate"  had  ever  been 
published  until  my  own  report.  The  dyeing  property  of  the 
substance,  chichipatin,  separated  from  "  chichipate,"  I  think 
is  quite  independent  of  the  alkaloid,  though  berberin,  it  is 
well  known,  yields  yellow  colors  with  wool.  I  also  separated 
a  new  camphor  from  this  plant.  It  is  crystalline,  and  under 
polarized  light  gives  a  beautiful  play  of  colors. 

During  the  year  1886,  Professor  Trimble  2  separated  a  new 
crystalline  camphor,  phloxol,  from  the  underground  portion 
of  Phlox  Carolina.  This  substance  resembles  the  camphor 
found  in  chichipate.  It  is  soluble  in  petroleum-ether,  and 
this  solvent  is  suggested  as  a  means  of  distinguishing  powdered 
Phlox  Carolina  from  Spigelia.  The  latter  contains  no  cam- 
phor. Phlox  is  frequently  put  on  the  market  for  Spigelia.  The 
two  drugs  in  the  normal  condition  can  be  readily  identified. 

An  estimate  of  the  profitable  ends  of  the  chemical  analysis 
of  plants  may  be  gathered  from  the  above  statements. 

Plant  analysis  covers  a  wide  field,  for  it  includes  the  chemistry 
of  the  living  and  the  dead  plant.  Its  application  to  various 
industries  is  far-reaching. 

Plant  analysis  in  this  country  has  been  called  an  "  infant 
industry."  There  are  probably  differences  of  opinion  about 
the  infant  needing  protection.  It  certainly  needs  encourage- 
ment and  support,  when  its  importance  as  a  citizen  is  recog- 
nized. 

Plant  chemistry  should  not  only  be  directed  towards  the 

1  "Cascara  Amarga,"  by  F.  A.  Thompson.  Ther.  Gazette.,  January  15, 
1884,  p.  8. 

"An  Analysis  of  the  Underground  Portion  of  Phlox  Carolina,"  by  Henry 
Trimble,  Amer.  Jour.  Phar.,  October,  1886,  p.  479. 


208        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

study  of  new  plants,  but  in  the  study  of  old  plants  it  is  to  be 
encouraged;  for  each  new  investigation  of  many  well-known 
plants  has  revealed  new  chemical  principles,  and  given  ad- 
ditional knowledge  of  the  old  ones.  We  can  never  know  to 
what  practical  uses  the  constituents  of  any  plants  may  be 
brought,  and  the  money  value  of  this  information  should  be 
considered. 

Many  chemical  compounds  which  are  of  the  most  practi- 
cal use,  now  made  by  synthesis,  were  first  discovered  in  plants, 
products  of  living  matter. 

Synthetical  chemistry  has  derived  its  knowledge  from  the 
results  of  analytical  study.  Researches  in  plant  analysis  have 
revealed  many  facts,  though  the  exploration  field  is  still 
wide. 

In  our  present  state  of  knowledge,  plant  chemistry  is  a  safe 
political  ground  for  either  the  Protectionist  or  Free-Trader. 
The  vegetable  cell  has  placed  the  tariff  of  human  penetration 
so  high,  and  protected  so  well  its  industry,  that  the  plant  en- 
joys the  monopoly  of  proteids  and  a  magazine  of  other  sub- 
stances. The  Free-Trader  may  console  himself,  for  if  he  is 
intelligent  enough  he  can  find  out  the  processes,  and  start 
his  own  factory,  duty  free. 

Professor  Cohn,  of  Breslau,  tells  us  that  it  is  only  a  question 
of  time  when  we  may  hope  for  the  chemist  to  succeed  in  doing 
what  the  simplest  Algae  and  mosses  are  able  to  do,  namely, 
to  produce  starch  from  carbonic  acid  and  water.  On  that  day 
the  bread  problem,  which  is  in  fact  the  greatest  of  all  social 
problems,  will  be  solved. 

It  is  indeed  true  that  those  organic  compounds  which  are 
of  the  most  importance  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  the  hydro- 
carbons and  the  albuminoids,  are  those  which  as  yet  have 
not  permitted  the  secrets  of  their  production  to  be  discovered. 

In  the  future,  when  synthesis  has  accomplished  this  pro- 
phecy, and  the  synthetical  chemist  reigns  supreme,  our  coming 
race,  to  my  imagination,  will  be  chemists,  and  our  farmers 
will  manufacture  our  food  supply  of  proteids,  sugars,  and 
starch.  The  surface  of  the  land  will  be  one  huge  teeming 
laboratory.  The  plants,  the  analytical  chemist,  and  others  of 


PLANT  ANALYSIS  AS  AN  APPLIED   SCIENCE   209 

his  race,  asphyxiated  by  their  environment,  will  have  long  ago 
passed  away  into  a  suffocating  forgetfulness. 

But  for  the  present  we  must  be  satisfied  to  depend  upon 
our  humble  colleagues,  the  plants,  for  our  food  and  beverages, 
our  fabrics,  perfumes,  and  dyestuffs,  our  medicines,  and  other 
things  too  numerous  to  mention. 


PLANT   CHEMISTRY,   AS  ILLUSTRATED   IN  THE 
PRODUCTION   OF   SUGAR   FROM   SORGHUM1 

IN  its  broadest  sense,  a  knowledge  of  plant  chemistry  com- 
prises, at  least,  a  general  understanding  of  botany  and  physi- 
ology, as  well  as  of  chemistry.  It  may  be  compared  to  a  plane 
bounded  by  three  lines.  This  simple  geometrical  figure  stands 
for  a  triple  theorem,  from  which  the  life-problem  of  the  plant 
is  to  be  solved. 

Tables  of  analytical  data  are  worthless  as  facts  unless  they 
serve  for  purposes  of  generalization,  or  to  interpret  the  physi- 
ological changes  incident  to  growth  and  decay. 

All  parts  of  plants  are  composed  of  chemical  bodies,  and 
are,  at  some  period  of  the  plant's  growth,  engaged  in  certain 
physiological  functions.  Chemical  processes  accompany  the 
different  stages  of  development.  Daily  analyses  of  the  plant, 
from  its  seed  to  maturity,  cannot  fail  to  acquaint  the  student 
with  the  order  of  chemical  succession.  "Such  information 
is  of  equal  importance  to  agriculture,  materia  medicay  and 
scientific  botany."  2 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  the  chemical  analysis  of  plants 
in  all  its  bearings.  Its  application  to  many  of  our  great  indus- 
tries may  be  shown;  but  I  have  selected  the  subject  of  sugar, 
from  the  number,  for  illustration. 

The  sugar  interests  of  our  country  concern  all.  Pharmacy 
needs  its  quota  of  sugar,  as  well  for  the  manufacture  of  its 
placebo  as  for  disguising  the  taste  of  its  bitterest  drug;  and 
the  sources  of  this  supply  are  of  special  interest  to  the  scien- 

1  A  lecture  delivered  before  the  Alumni  Association  of  the  Philadelphia 
College  of  Pharmacy,  February  8th,  1887.  Printed  in  Proceedings  of  the  Alumni 
Association;  also  in  pamphlet  form,  under  imprint  of  Burk  and  McFetridge, 
1887. 

2  "  Plant  Analysis  as  an  Applied  Science,"  see  p.  175. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  211 

tist  as  well  as  to  the  people.  I  am  venturing  upon  a  field  that 
has  grown  more  crops  of  dissension  and  contest  than  acres 
of  the  juicy  reed.  I  refer  to  the  possibility  of  an  indigenous 
sugar  supply  from  sorghum  cane. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  almost  the  earliest  im- 
pulses given  to  the  consideration  of  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  the  beet  root  and  sorghum  cane  were  from  Philadelphia. 
As  early  as  the  year  1836,  the  sugar  beet  was  first  introduced 
into  the  United  States  by  a  society  in  this  city; *  and  Dr. 
Goessmann  called  the  attention  of  the  agricultural  institutes 
of  his  native  country,  Germany,  to  his  own  observations  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  the  juice  of  sorghum,  made  during  the 
summer  season  of  1857,  while  here.2 

Nearly  three  quarters  of  a  century  have  been  spent  to  develop 
the  chemical  processes  of  the  beet-sugar  industry,  and  im- 
provements are  even  now  being  introduced.  The  working  of 
sorghum  juices  will  be  found  as  difficult  as  those  of  beet, 
and  true  success  cannot  be  hoped  for  until  the  processes  used 
for  the  one  are  as  complete  and  scientific  as  for  the  other. 
It  is  not  meant  by  this  that  the  processes  and  machinery  are 
to  be  identical. 

Sorghum  will  have  to  develop  a  chemistry  of  its  own.  This 
will  not  be  the  work  of  a  day  or  a  year,  but  it  will  be  accom- 
plished sooner  or  later.3 

The  pronounced  success  of  the  beet-sugar  industries  of 
France  and  Germany  should  serve  as  a  beacon-light  to  the 
struggling  and  distressed  manufacturers  of  other  countries. 

I  wish  to  sketch  briefly  what  chemistry,  particularly  plant 
analysis,  has  done  for  sorghum. 

Before  taking  up  this  subject  in  detail,  it  may  be  well  to 
state  that  the  sources  of  sugar  supply  to  the  world  are  from 
a  few  plants  4  —  the  sugar  beet,  maple,  sugar  cane,  and  sor- 
ghum. 


1  Observations  on  the  Sugar  Beet  and  its  Cultivation.   Philadelphia,  1840. 

2  "  Sugar  Cane,  Sorghum  Saccharatum,"  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Goessmann.    From 
Transactions,  N.  Y.  State  Agricultural  Society,  1861. 

3  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  page  43,  by  H.  W.  Wiley. 

4  A  fifth  source  of  sugar  supply  is  threatened  by  introducing  upon  the 


212        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

It  will  be  unnecessary  in  this  connection  to  give  the  history 
of  beet  culture  from  its  introduction  into  this  country  up  to  the 
present  time.  But  during  1883  an<^  x^^4  a^  the  beet-sugar  in 
our  country  was  made  at  a  factory  located  at  Alvarado, 
California.1  The  juice  of  beets  raised  on  the  estate  of  this 
corporation  contained  14.38  per  cent,  sugar,  and  last  August 
reached  20.5  per  cent,  at  one  time,  with  the  "purity  coefficient" 
of  82,  the  usual  average  per  cent,  in  Germany  being  from 
12  to  13,  with  but  one  factory  reaching  as  high  as  15.6  per 
cent.2  The  quantity  of  sugar  produced  per  acre  by  the  factory 
has  averaged  about  3000  pounds. 

Sugar  manufactured  from  the  beet  on  the  Pacific  coast  is 
an  assured  success.  The  climate  and  soil  of  northern  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon,  and  Washington  Territory  are  especially 
suitable  to  this  plant.  A  vast  range  of  territory  in  our  Northern 
States  would  be  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar  beet. 
Scientific  methods  of  horticulture  and  agriculture  should  be 
resorted  to,  to  increase  the  supply,  for  an  insufficiency  of 
beets  in  the  past,  and  not  the  defects  of  machinery,  has  been 
the  cause  of  failures. 

An  adequate  supply  of  sugar  cannot  be  expected  from  the 
maple,  nor  from  the  sugar-cane  of  the  South  during  the  present 
state  of  this  industry. 

The  maple  is  a  tree  of  slow  growth.  Only  after  twenty- 
five  years  can  it  be  used  for  sugar- making.  It  yields  the  best 
harvest  after  a  severe  winter,  and,  therefore,  the  North  is  the 
proper  field  for  the  planting  of  this  tree.  "Even  if  forestry 
is  successful  in  securing  a  wide  increase  of  maple  orchard, 
it  will  be  many  years  before  it  can  affect  our  sugar  supply."  3 

The  annual  production  of  maple  sugar  is  now  about  20,000 
tons,4  and  of  molasses,  2,000,000  gallons. 

market  saccharine-glucose  —  a  combination  of  two  parts  of  the  coal-tar 
derivative  product  and  one  thousand  parts  glucose,  which,  it  is  claimed,  will 
be  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  genuine  competitor  with  cane  sugar. 

1  "Our  Sugar  Supply,"  by  H.  W.  Wiley.   From  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc.  oj 
Washington,  January,  1887. 

2  Overland  Monthly,  December,  1886.    E.  W.  Hilgard. 

3  From  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc.  oj  Washington. 

4  Bui.  No.  5,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  Agr.,  p.  7. 


SUGAR  FROM   SORGHUM  213 

The  yield  of  sugar  per  tree  varies  from  2.5  to  5  pounds,  ac- 
cording to  the  season.  A  single  tree  has  been  known  to  yield 
as  much  as  40  pounds  of  sugar.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  average 
yield  of  sugar  may  easily  reach  200  pounds  per  acre.1 

The  period  is  remote  when  we  may  hope  to  obtain  our  sugar 
supply  from  the  maple.  This  sugar  will  doubtlessly  always 
remain  a  luxury  rather  than  an  article  of  general  consump- 
tion.2 

Former  analyses  show  that  the  yield  from  Louisiana  cane 
is  less  than  from  cane  grown  in  the  tropics.  The  future  pros- 
perity of  Louisiana  growers  need  not  suffer  from  the  poorer 
juice,  since  the  recent  experiments  at  Fort  Scott 3  demon- 
strated that  a  given  weight  of  cane,  without  noticeably  increas- 
ing the  cost  of  manufacture,  yielded  thirty  per  cent,  more  by 
the  diffusion  process  than  has  ever  been  made  before.  The 
Southern  sugar  industry  will  thrive  with  the  encouragement  of 
a  greater  sugar  yield,  and  by  the  introduction  of  more  scientific 
methods  of  growing  and  manufacture. 

The  following  statistics  will  show  the  sugar  and  molasses 
importations  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  i886,4  free  of  duty, 
from  the  Hawaiian  islands :  — 

Free  of  Duty.  Amount.  Value. 

Molasses 61,1 71  gallons  $7,786.00 

Sugar 191,623,1 75  pounds  9,166,826.00 


Total, $9,174,612.00 

Dutiable.                                 Amount.  Value. 

Molasses  39,018,637  gallons  $5,587,884.00 

Sugar   2,498,258,590  pounds  71,606,918.00 

Sugar  candy,  etc.,  23,333.00 


Total    $77,218,135.00 


Value  of  all  imported  sugar  and  molasses $86,392,747.00 

1  Our  Sugar  Supply,  by  H.  W.  Wiley,  p.  20. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  21. 

8  Bui.  No.  14,  Ghent.  Div.  Dept.  Agr.,  1886. 
4  Bureau  oj  Statistics,  Treas.  Dept.,  1886. 


2i4        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  value  of  all  imported  sugars  and  molas- 
ses for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1885 $76,738,719.00 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1884,    103,884,275.00 

The  total  value l  of  domestic  sugars  and  mo- 
lasses amounted  to  43,037,409.03 

The  amount  of  money  sent  out  of  the  coun- 
try during  the  last  year  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  sugar  consumption,  was 2 135,000,000.00 

If  it  is  admitted  that  the  prosperity  of  a  country  is  shown  by 
its  advance  in  agriculture,  the  onward  march  should  be  en- 
couraged by  every  means  in  our  power.3  To  establish  an 
indigenous  sugar  industry  would  add  to  this  prosperity.  An 
idea  may  be  obtained,  from  the  above  statistics,  to  what  mag- 
nitude the  industry  must  reach  before  it  can  supply  to  the 
people  this  necessary  article  of  food. 

The  President  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Washington,  in 
his  annual  address,4  presented,  under  four  headings,  the 
possible  solution  of  the  sugar  problem.  The  general  conclu- 
sions reached  were  in  favor  of  the  establishment  of  a  domestic 
industry. 

The  wide  range  of  territory  and  the  varied  climate  of  our 
country  render  it  particularly  fitted  for  sugar  production. 
The  maple  and  sugar  beet  can  be  grown  on  our  lands  in  the 
North.  The  best  range  of  latitude  for  the  beet  in  America 
is  from  38°  to  44°. 5  The  sugar-cane  plantations  of  the  South 
will  contribute  their  share,  and  the  great  middle  belt  of  our 
vast  country  may  be  given  to  sorghum  crops.  On  a  broad 
scale  the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  this  belt  have  been 
already  defined. 

The  isotherm  6  is  70°  Fahrenheit  for  the  best  sorghum  sugar 
production  for  June,  July,  and  August;  but  cane  for  syrup 

1  Bui.  No.  5,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

2  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc.  of  Washington,  p.  16. 

3  "Plant  Analysis  as  an  Applied  Science."    Franklin  Institute  Journal. 

4  "Our  Sugar  Supply,"  by  H.  W.  Wiley.   From  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc.  of 
Washington,  1887. 

6  Observations  on  the  Beet  Root  Sugar  and  Sugar  Beet  Culture,  as  adapted 
to  the  United  States,  Chicago,  1863,  p.  13. 
8  Bui.  No.  3,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr. 


CQL1 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  215 

will  grow  north  of  that  line.  It  is  probable  that  the  area  of 
successful  sorghum  culture  is  not  nearly  so  extensive  as  a 
few  years  ago  it  was  thought  to  be;  *  but  at  a  comparatively 
small  expenditure  the  question  of  climate  for  special  localities, 
the  best  varieties  of  sorghum  for  planting,  and  other  condi- 
tions, could  be  tested  by  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  plant, 
whose  juices  respond  as  quickly  to  favorable  or  adverse  con- 
ditions as  the  mercury  to  heat  and  cold. 

The  history  of  the  introduction  of  sorghum  into  America 
would  fill  several  volumes.  "All  the  evidence  goes  to  show 
that  China  was  the  first  country  that  cultivated  it,  and  manu- 
factured sugar;  and  not  only  were  the  Chinese  the  first,  but 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  they  enjoyed  its  use  many 
centuries  before  it  was  generally  known  and  used  in  Europe. 
When  first  known  it  went  by  the  name  of  Indian  salt,  and 
under  that  name  it  was  sent  abroad  from  China  to  India  and 
Arabia,  and  thence  to  Rome  and^Greece  among  the  costly 
spices,  and  was  considered  a  rare  luxury.  The  cultivation  of 
the  plant  gradually  extended  over  the  different  countries  of 
Europe. 

"For  some  time  after  the  introduction  of  sugar  into  Europe, 
it  was  used  only  on  great  occasions,  such  as  feasts,  and  for 
medicines;  and  in  a  different  form  from  what  it  is  now  com- 
monly used  —  more  like  our  candy.  The  sugar  cane  was  first 
brought  to  this  country  and  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  Louisi- 
ana, on  the  very  place  where  the  city  of  New  Orleans  now 
stands."  2 

It  is  said  that  sugar  marks  the  progress  of  civilization.  "  The 
consumption  of  sugar  may  be  taken  as  the  index  to  the  pros- 
perity and  refinement  of  the  people.  Those  nations  holding 
first  rank  in  wealth,  intelligence,  and  enterprise  are  the  great- 
est sugar-eaters."3  We  must  contest  with  England  to  hold 
the  first  place  in  this  respect.  The  immensely  large  quantities 
of  table  syrup  used  in  this  country,  in  addition  to  the  56  Ibs. 

1  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  Agr.,  p.  43. 

2  The  Chinese  Sugar  Cane,  its  History,  Mode  of  Cultivation,  etc.,  by  James 
F.  C.  Hyde,  N.  Y.,  1857. 

3  "Our  Sugar  Supply,"  from   Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Soc.  of  Washington, 
p.  32. 


216        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  sugar  per  capita,  doubtless  rival  England  with  her  67  Ibs. 
per  capita,  and  her  marmalade  and  jelly  consumption. 

Sorghum  saccharatum  belongs,  botanically,  to  the  Gramine®, 
or  grasses,  a  class  of  plants  characterized  chemically  by  their 
large  percentage  of  sugars,  wax,  and  silica.  The  quantity 
of  silica  in  sorghum  is  small;  according  to  Dr.  Goessmann, 
is  .0015  per  cent. 

The  principal  end  for  the  cultivation  of  sorghum  is  for 
sugar  and  molasses  manufacture.  Uses  are  still  to  be  found 
for  many  of  the  by-products.  The  profitable  utilization  of 
these  products  would  assist  in  lessening  the  cost  of  sugar 
manufacture. 

The  disposition  of  the  bagasse  is  a  question  of  great  econo- 
mic importance.  "Three  uses  appear  to  be  possible,  — No.  i 
for  paper  stock;  No.  2  for  manure;  No.  3  for  fuel."  1 

"The  great  object  sought  in  France  in  the  cultivation  of 
this  plant  is  the  juice  contained  in  its  stalks,  which  furnishes 
three  important  products  —  namely,  sugar,  which  is  identi- 
cal with  that  of  cane;  alcohol;  and  a  fermented  drink  analo- 
gous to  cider  or  champagne.  The  chaff  or  pellicles  which  cover 
the  seeds  is  used  for  dyeing  silk  various  permanent  shades  of 
red."  2 

The  bagasse  is  a  valuable  fodder,  being  sweeter  than  ordi- 
nary grasses  and  sufficiently  nutritious.  The  leaves  of  the 
plant,  removed  in  stripping  the  stalks,  are  much  relished  by 
stock.  The  leaves  of  the  sorghum  have  a  higher  nutritive 
ratio  than  our  grain  or  hay,  on  account  of  the  large  percent- 
ages of  sugar  and  albumen  they  contain.3  The  seeds  furnish 
good  food  for  farm  animals.  Proximate  analyses  show  that 
this  seed  differs  but  little  in  composition  from  the  other  cereals, 
and  closely  resembles  corn.  It  has  been  reported  that  sorghum 
seeds  contain  considerable  tannin,  which  makes  them  less 
valuable  as  food.  It  is  probable  that  the  tannin  is  not  present 
in  the  seeds  themselves,  at  least  of  many  varieties,  but  in  the 
hulls  which  inclose  these  seeds. 

1  Bui.  No.  14,  Div.  of  Ghent.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  56. 

2  Chinese  Sugar  Cane  and  Sugar  Making,  by  Charles  F.  Stansbury.    N.  Y., 

3  Investigation  of  Sorghum,  by  Collier.   Dept.  of  Agr.,  1883. 


SUGAR  FROM   SORGHUM  217 

These  hulls  may  be  readily  separated  from  some  varieties 
of  sorghum  seeds  and  with  more  difficulty  from  others.1 

Comparative  analyses  of  the  sorghum  seeds  with  other  cereals 
show  the  place  which  the  sorghum  holds  among  the  more 
prominent  cereals.  The  seeds  contain  starch,  albuminoids, 
oil,  sugar,  and  fibre  in  such  proportions  as  to  render  them 
suitable  for  animal  food.2  These  seeds  are  ground  to  flour, 
and  are  used  extensively  for  food  by  the  people  over  large 
tracts  of  India. 

In  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Goessmann 3  upon  the  bagasse 
with  various  chemicals,  he  obtained  a  colorless  pulp  suitable 
for  making  a  superior  quality  of  paper  without  injuring  the 
fibre.  From  his  analyses  he  obtained  8.2  per  cent,  of  very  pure 
cellulose  or  fibre.  The  manufacturer  would  probably  obtain 
more,  as  he  could  not  afford  to  purify  it  as  completely  as  was 
done  in  the  analysis.  The  increased  consumption  of  paper 
has  for  years  obliged  the  manufacturer  to  seek  new  sources 
of  vegetable  fibre  supply.  Sorghum  promises  to  furnish  this 
supply. 

The  pulp  from  the  mill  bagasse  of  the  Rio  Grande  Sugar 
Company,  by  experiment,  was  shown  to  rank  next  to  that  from 
linen  rags.4 

Several  organic  acids  probably  occur  in  the  sorghum  juice. 
The  presence  of  these  acids  may  interfere  seriously  with  the 
successful  manufacture  of  sugar  and  of  clear  free  syrup. 
Among  them  aconitic  acid  has  been  found,  and  also  malic 
acid.  The  free  acids  vary  in  amount  from  .1  to  .2  per  cent. 
There  is  also  acid  present  combined,  with  potash  and  other 
bases  found  in  the  ash.5  The  acidity  of  the  sorghum  juice 
is  often  a  serious  cause  of  failure,  by  inverting  the  sucrose. 
After  the  close  of  the  season  at  Fort  Scott,  a  comparative 
study  was  made  of  the  amount  of  the  inversion  which  takes 
place  in  the  diffusion-cells.  It  was  clearly  shown  "that  the 

Special  Report,  No.  33,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  by  Peter  Collier,  p.  99. 
Bui.  No.  3,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  114. 

"Sugar  Cane,"    by  Dr.  C.  A.  Goessmann.     From  Transactions  N.  Y. 
State  Agr.  Soc.,  1881,  p.  25. 

Bui.  XLI,  N.  J.  Agr.  Experimental  Station,  1887,  p.  23. 
Bui.  No.  3,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  by  H.  W.  Wiley,  p.  16. 


218        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

trouble  is  due  to  acids  of  the  cane,  chiefly  to  those  formed 
by  the  partial  fermentation  which  has  produced  the  inversion 
of  the  sugar,  or  else  in  the  increased  susceptibility  of  the  su- 
crose remaining  to  the  inverting  action  of  the  organic  acids."  1 

The  soluble  solids,  not  sugar,  are  soluble  starch  and  gum, 
the  acids,  coloring-matters,  wax,  resin,  and  mineral  sub- 
stances. In  every  case  where  sorghum  juice  was  tested  for 
starch  it  was  found  to  be  present.2  Several  coloring-matters 
have  been  obtained  from  sorghum,  sorgothine  and  sorghine 
from  the  covering  of  the  fruit,  and  also  a  red  dye  from  the  cane 
itself.3 

Since  the  ash  constituents  of  a  sugar-producing  plant  inter- 
fere with  its  highest  yield  of  sugar,  we  find  that  sorghum  is 
superior  in  this  respect  to  the  sugar  beet,  for  its  average  total 
ash  amounts  to  .62132  per  cent.;  and  the  sugar  beet  reaches 
1.3  per  cent.4 

From  these  analyses  it  is  seen  that  the  sugar  beet  contains 
nearly  twice  as  much  ash  as  the  stalk  of  sorghum.5 

The  presence  of  large  quantities  of  the  alkalies  in  sugar 
juice  is  also  unfavorable  to  the  production  of  sugar.  Hence, 
in  selecting  localities  for  growing  crops,  it  is  very  important 
to  obtain  a  soil  free  from  such  substances. 

The  character  and  composition  of  the  soil  best  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  sorghum  for  sugar  production  are  obviously 
matters  of  fundamental  importance. 

A  sandy  loam  appears  to  be  the  most  favorable  soil  for  cane.6 

Comparative  analyses  were  made  on  the  sorghum  to  show 
the  effects  of  fertilizers  on  the  sucrose,  glucose,  and  solids  in 
the  juice.  In  these  experiments  it  was  found  that  the  soil  must 
have  contained  sufficient  food  for  the  proper  development  of 
the  sorghum  plant,  and  that  the  addition  of  these  special  fer- 
tilizers was  unnecessary,  and  resulted  in  no  marked  change 
in  the  composition  of  the  sorghum  juices.7  These  results 


Bui.  No.  14,  p.  27.  2  Bui.  No.  3,  p.  16. 

Matures  Premieres  Organiques,  par  Pennetier,  pp.  480-509. 

Bui.  No.  3,  p.  17.  6  Ibid. 

Ibid.,  p.  44. 

Dept.  of  Agr.,  Special  Rep.  No.  33,  by  Peter  Collier,  Chemist. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  219 

do  not  prove  that  on  certain  soils,  which  are  deficient  in  one 
or  more  essential  constituents  of  plant-food,  that  the  addition 
of  proper  fertilizers  will  not  be  of  great  value. 

"The  analysis  of  the  ash,  taken  with  that  of  the  soil,  is  a 
good  guide  for  the  application  of  mineral  fertilizers.  Sorghum 
is  a  very  much  less  rapacious  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
consumer  than  the  sugar  beet."  1 

The  importance  of  this  statement  about  potash  is  obvious, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  alkalies  seriously  interfere  with 
the  successful  manufacture  of  sugar. 

Many  interesting  facts  about  sorghum  may  be  culled  from 
the  earlier  reports  of  the  Agricultural  Department. 

From  comparative  analyses  of  different  parts  of  the  stalk 
of  the  sorghum,  it  appears  that  the  amount  of  juice  present 
in  the  upper  and  lower  halves  does  not  vary  widely.  Hence, 
the  practice  of  cutting  the  stalk  several  inches  above  the  ground 
involves  a  large  waste  of  sugar.2 

Analyses  of  the  stalk  and  leaves  show  that  the  stripping 
of  the  cane  diminished  the  quantity  of  the  juice,  but  increased 
its  quality,  although  there  is  no  available  sugar  in  the  juice 
of  the  leaves,  owing  to  the  larger  percentage  of  other  solids 
than  glucose.3 

Experiments  at  the  Rio  Grande  Station  were  conducted :  — 

"No.  i.  To  compare  mill  juice  from  unstripped  cane  with 
diffusion  juice  from  thoroughly  cleaned  stalks. 

"No.  2.  To  compare  the  diffusion  juice  from  stripped  and 
unstripped  sorghum. 

"The  results  were  as  follows:  — 

"No.  i.  Eighty-nine  per  cent,  of  the  total  sugar  in  the  cane 
was  secured  by  diffusion.  Forty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  total 
sugar  in  the  cane  was  secured  by  milling.  Milled  products, 
therefore,  must  be  increased  by  eighty-four  per  cent,  in  order 
to  equal  diffusion  products. 

"No.  2.  Diffusion  juices  from  stripped  cane  excelled  mill 
juices  in  concentration,  color,  taste,  and  purity.  Diffusion 

1  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Chem.  Div.  Bui.  No.  3,  p.  19. 

2  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Report,  1883,  Collier,  p.  30. 

3  Report,  1883,  Collier,  p.  30. 


220        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

juices  from  unstripped  cane  are  inferior  to  mill  juice  in  all  of 
these  respects. 

"As  a  result  of  these  experiments,  it  was  claimed  that 
leaves,  leaf-sheaths,  and  seed  were  the  chief  obstacles  to  the 
introduction  of  diffusion.  This  claim  was  admitted  by  Mr. 
Potts,  and  Mr.  Hughes  was  directed  to  construct  his  strip- 
ping machine."  1 

"A  further  fact,  which  is  illustrated  by  the  analyses  of  the 
diffusion  juices  from  uninjured  canes  is,  that  the  diminished 
purity  is  produced  solely  by  the  extraction  of  gum  and  chloro- 
phyll, chiefly  from  the  blades  and  sheaths,  and  that  this 
injury  can  be  avoided  by  a  proper  cleaning  of  the  canes."  2 

From  tables  of  comparative  analyses,  showing  the  average 
composition  for  each  variety  of  sorghum  in  every  stage  of  its 
growth,  it  is  seen  that  "in  the  earlier  stages  in  the  growth  of 
each  plant,  the  amount  of  crystallizable  sugar  is  small,  but 
as  the  plants  mature,  the  sucrose  rapidly  increases,  until  it 
equals  from  twelve  to  sixteen  per  cent,  of  juice.  The  solids, 
not  sugar,  in  the  juice  also  increase  from  the  first,  but  very 
much  less  rapidly  than  does  the  crystallizable  sugar;  at  the 
same  time,  the  glucose  steadily  diminishes."  3 

The  habits  of  some  varieties  of  sorghum  and  their  demands 
upon  climate  and  soil  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the 
several  varieties  of  maize,  and  yet  there  appears  to  be,  in  cer- 
tain respects,  marked  differences.  The  sorghums,  as  a  class, 
are  capable  of  sustaining  a  period  of  drought  which  would  prove 
fatal  to  maize.4 

The  root  system  of  sorghum  renders  it  peculiarly  adapted 
to  growing  upon  poorer  lands  than  other  kinds  of  crops,  es- 
pecially if  the  subsoil  is  sufficiently  rich  in  nutritive  matter  to 
give  to  the  plant  its  needed  food  supply. 

The  chemical  analyses  of  the  sorghum  may  be  made  from 
the  expressed  juice  or  directly  from  the  cane.  Numerous 
investigations  have  been  conducted  in  both  ways. 

1  Bui.  XLI,  1887,  p.  4.  2  Bui.  14,  p.  40. 

8  Spec.  Rep.  No.  33,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1881,  p.  n. 

4  Investigation  of  Sorghum  as  a  Sugar-producing  Plant,  Dept.  of  Agr. 
Peter  Collier. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  221 

The  relative  value  of  the  juice  of  any  sugar-producing 
plant  depends  upon  the  ratio  of  crystallizable  sugar  or  sucrose 
to  the  other  sugars  or  solids  which  it  contains.  The  great  in- 
feriority of  sorghum,  as  a  sucrose-producing  plant,  as  com- 
pared with  the  sugar  beet,  is  in  the  fact  that  it  contains  sugars 
which  are  not  sucrose.  These  sugars  are  not  crystallizable 
in  the  ordinary  way.  The  general  term  glucose  has  been  ap- 
plied to  them. 

The  chief  one  of  these  "other  sugars"  present  does  not 
affect  the  plane  of  polarized  light.  Dr.  Wiley  proposes  to  call 
it  anoptosej  a  term  wlu'ch  signifies  a  sugar  without  influence 
on  the  polarized  ray.1 

In  normal  ripe  sorghum  cane,  sucrose  and  anoptose  are 
probably  the  only  sugars  present.  If  the  cane  is  abnormal  or 
exposed  for  a  time  after  cutting,  or  frost-bitten,  the  sucrose 
undergoes  a  transformation.  It  is  converted  into  invert  sugar, 
which  is  non-crystallizable.2 

The  expression  of  available  sugar  means  "the  proportion 
of  sugar  which  can  be  obtained  in  a  dry  crystallized  form 
from  the  canes.  Its  amount  depends  on  the  percentage  of 
juice  extracted  from  the  canes,  and  the  ratio  of  sucrose  to 
the  other  bodies  in  the  juice."  3 

The  " coefficient  of  purity"  4  is  the  ratio  per  cent,  of  the  total 
sucrose  in  a  juice  to  the  total  solids.  Juices  having  an  average 
"purity  coefficient"  less  than  sixty  will  scarcely  prove  profit- 
able for  sugar  manufacture.  They  will,  however,  make  good 
syrup. 

Sorghum  has  proved  to  be  the  most  capricious  of  crops. 
In  the  late  experiments  at  Fort  Scott,  analyses  of  different 
canes  presented  the  widest  differences,  and  with  such  raw 
material  it  was  found  to  be  impossible,  successfully,  to  manu- 
facture sugar. 

However,  it  must  not  be  inferred,  from  these  discouraging 
analyses,  that  sorghum  is  not  capable  of  becoming  a  good 
sugar-producing  plant.  Many  samples  of  cane  brought  fresh 

1  Bui.  No.  3,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  15. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  15.  3  Ibid.,  p.  20. 
4  Ibid.,  p.  21. 


222        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

from  the  fields,  or  from  protected  parts  of  piles  of  cane 
kept  for  a  day,  showed  a  remarkably  high  percentage  of 
sugar. 

On  September  30th,1  a  sample  of  cane  from  the  carrier 
showed :  — 

Sucrose I2-39  per  cent. 

Glucose 3.76        " 

Total  solids 17.80        " 

Available  sugar 6.98       " 

Such  cane  would  yield  140  Ibs.  of  sugar  per  ton. 

An  October  cane  gave  an  average  of  176.6  Ibs.  of  sugar 
per  ton.  Dozens  of  samples  of  cane  during  the  season  would 
have  given  over  100  Ibs.  of  sugar  per  ton.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  sorghum  cane  can  be  grown  and  delivered  at  the 
factory  for  $2.00  a  ton,  the  importance  of  these  figures  cannot 
be  overestimated.  If  sorghum  can  be  produced  which  will  con- 
tain 5  per  cent,  of  available  sugar  from  the  whole  crop,  the 
future  of  the  industry  is  a  most  promising  one. 

Until  the  variations  of  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  juice 
can  be  controlled,  sorghum  cannot  be  considered  a  profitable 
crop  for  sugar  production. 

The  tendency  of  sorghum  cane  is  to  undergo  rapid  change. 
This  changeable  disposition  of  the  sorghum,  as  compared  to  the 
sugar  beet,  and  even  to  the  tropical  cane,  is  a  serious  fault.  To 
overcome  this  characteristic  of  sorghum  will  require  the  most 
scientific  agriculture  and  the  researches  of  chemistry.  Special 
experiments  should  be  undertaken,  which  have  in  view  the 
increase  of  the  ratio  of  the  sucrose  to  the  other  substances  of 
the  juice.  "The  great  trouble  is  in  the  remarkable  variation 
of  the  quantity  of  sugar  in  a  field  of  sorghum  plants.  No  esti- 
mate of  the  total  yield  can  be  gathered  from  the  examination 
of  one  plant,  as  others  in  its  immediate  neighborhood  might 
be  found  to  be  radically  different.  The  obtaining  of  a  uniform 
standard  of  high  sucrose  production  by  the  sorghum  cane  will 
possibly  take  scientists  years  to  accomplish."  2 

1  Bui.  No.  14,  p.  15. 

2  H.  W.  Wiley,  The  Eighth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  National  Sugar  Growers' 
Association.    St.  Louis,  Feb.  8th,  1887. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  223 

In  the  report  for  1884,  on  the  Northern  Sugar  Industry,1 
the  chemist  in  charge  summed  up  the  necessary  conditions 
for  a  future  success  of  the  sorghum  industry. 

1.  A  careful  selection  and  improvement  of  the  seed  with 
a  view  of  increasing  the  proportions  of  sucrose. 

2.  A  definition  of  geographical  limits  of  successful  culture 
and  manufacture. 

3.  A  better  method  of  purifying  juices. 

4.  A  more  complete    separation   of   the   sugar   from   the 
canes. 

5.  A  more  complete  separation  of  the  sugar  from  the  mo- 
lasses. 

6.  A  systematic  utilization  of  by-products. 

7.  A  careful  nutrition  and  improvement  of  the  soil. 
Sorghum  juice  is  specially  fitted  for  the  manufacture  of  an 

excellent  grade  of  syrup.  There  is  no  danger,  should  this 
indigenous  sugar  industry  grow  to  the  proportions  neces- 
sary to  supply  the  people  with  sugar,  that  our  land  would  be 
overloaded  with  an  excess  of  molasses  production.  By  suitable 
methods  this  molasses  might  be  used  for  distilling  alcohol. 
This  would  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  profit  of  the 
sugar  house.  In  France,  distilleries  are  connected  with  the 
beet-sugar  factories.  In  the  case  of  the  alcohol  from  beets, 
it  is  not  fitted  for  the  manufacture  of  beverages ;  and  such 
alcohol  may  be  used  in  the  arts.  It  has  been  suggested,  that 
a  similar  use  be  made  of  the  alcohol  from  sorghum,  and  that 
it  be  distilled  and  sold  free  of  taxation.2 

It  is  well,  known  that  sorghum  has  been  successfully  and 
profitably  grown  for  the  production  of  an  excellent  syrup. 
But  the  problem  which  is  now  placed  before  us  is  to  obtain 
a  crystallizable  sugar  from  the  juice  which  will  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  other  sugars  in  the  market. 

The  solution  of  this  question  will  probably  depend  upon 
advances  to  be  made  in  plant  chemistry.  The  following  lines 
of  investigation  are  suggested :  — 

i.  To  secure  the  increase  and  constancy  of  the  percentage 

1  Bui.  No.  3,  Ghent.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  107. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  1 1 8. 


224       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  sugar  or  sucrose  would  need  a  happy  choice  of  location, 
successful  cultivation,  and  wise  selection  of  the  best  seeds. 

2.  After  cutting  the  cane,  to  counteract  the  instability  which 
inverts  the  sucrose  into  non-crystallizable  sugar  before  it  is 
subjected  to  any  process  of  extraction. 

3.  To  determine  the  most  favorable  mechanical  and  chemi- 
cal processes  for  obtaining  the  largest  production  of  dry  sugar 
from  this  juice. 

4.  To  utilize  profitably  the  by-products. 

I  stated  a  few  weeks  since:  *  "It  seems  to  me  that  the  re- 
finements of  plant  analysis  are  destined  to  play  an  important 
part  in  this  connection.  Chemical  analysis  of  chosen  seeds 
would  insure  a  wise  selection  for  planting.  Analysis  of  the 
cane  and  juice  would  show  the  results  of  experimental  culture. 
For  experiment,  the  proportional  constituents  of  the  soil  may 
be  varied,  to  determine  if  the  proportion  of  chemical  constitu- 
ents of  the  cane,  detrimental  or  favorable  to  the  production 
of  a  richer  juice,  may  be  controlled. 

"Analysis  would  show  what  external  chemical  conditions 
are  requisite  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth;  and  if  upon  this 
depends  a  larger  sugar  yield,  series  of  experiments,  at  different 
stages  of  growth,  undertaken  to  discover  the  chemical  processes 
attending  growth,  maturing,  and  ripening  of  the  canes,  under 
experimental  conditions,  are  necessary  to  be  known  by  the 
chemical  representative  of  the  producer. 

"Plant  chemistry,  in  applying  this  knowledge  to  practical 
agricultural  ends,  will  fulfill  a  high  aim.  It  may  be  suggested, 
as  a  wrorthy  object  of  agricultural  experiment,  to  discover  what 
parts  of  the  residual  sorghum  and  cane,  after  the  sugar  ex- 
traction, may  serve  a  practical  end." 

Among  the  most  successful  experiments  on  sorghum,  have 
been  those  conducted  in  Italy,  a  report  of  which  is  made  by 
the  Italian  Minister  of  Agriculture.2  The  sorghum  plants 
seem  to  thrive  there  better  than  in  this  country,  and  the  per- 
centage of  sugar  from  the  canes  reached  as  high  as  twenty- 

1  "Plant  Analysis  as  an  Applied  Science."     Lecture  before  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia,  Jan.  i7th,  1887.    Seep.  175. 

2  Annali  di  Agricultures. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  225 

six,  a  month  after  cutting,  which  might  be  partly  due  to  the 
concentration  by  evaporation. 

No  statement  is  made  as  to  how  the  canes  were  preserved 
so  long,  but  they  were  probably  placed  underground. 

Experiments  at  the  station  in  Washington 1  were  conducted 
by  the  chemist  in  charge,  to  preserve  cane  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  beets  are  kept.  The  sorghum  canes  were  placed  in  a 
shallow  ditch,  and  covered  with  earth.  In  January,  when  the 
ground  was  frozen,  the  silo  was  opened,  the  cane,  from  analysis, 
yielding  8.39  per  cent,  sucrose.  The  next  analysis  of  the  cane 
was  made  after  the  winter  was  practically  over.  There  was 
a  small  loss  of  sucrose,  and  the  yield  showed  7  per  cent. 
Sorghum  is  preserved  in  silos  in  Japan.2 

The  crude  juice  of  the  sugar  beet  is  a  very  unpromising 
product,  but  the  processes  are  so  perfected  that  nearly  all 
the  juice  is  worked  up  into  crystallizable  sugar.  Mr.  Hilgard 
states  that  "the  juice  of  the  sugar  beet  is  in  the  same  cases 
the  least  pure  of  sugar-producing  plants.  To  obtain  pure 
sugars  from  such  a  raw  material  requires  the  confidence  of  a 
chemist  in  the  resources  of  his  science,  and  the  solution  of  the 
problem  stands  as  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  the 
utility  of  apparently  recondite  research  in  developing  latent 
resources  for  industrial  uses."  3 

The  cells  of  the  sorghum  cane  are  grouped  together  like 
a  honeycomb.  The  sugar,  which  is  held  in  a  state  of  solution, 
is  contained  within  the  cellular  tissue.  Dr.  Wiley  states,4 
"The  idea  that  sugar  exists  in  the  cane  in  a  crystalline  form 
is  contrary  to  all  rules  of  chemical  physics  and  accurate 
observation." 

A  process  of  extracting  the  sugar  from  sugar-producing  plants 
is  based  upon  taking  advantage  of  the  natural  condition  of 
things  as  they  exist  in  the  plants,  and  the  application  of  the 
theory  of  osmose. 

This  process,  known  as  diffusion,  is  the  "spontaneous  mixing 

1  Bui.  No.  3,  p.  78,  by  H.  W.  Wiley. 

2  From  a  Report  of  Consul-General  Van  Buren. 

8  The  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  California,  by  E.  W.  Hilgard,  Dec.  1886. 
4  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  5. 


226        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  two  liquids  of  different  nature,  density,  or  temperature,  in- 
dependent of  chemical  action  upon  one  another."1  More 
exactly  it  is  a  molecular  force.2 

Practically,  diffusion  is  the  means  by  which  all  solid  con- 
tents are  extracted  from  the  cells.  The  water  used  for  the  dif- 
fusion enters  the  cells  of  the  cane  and  leaves  it  charged  with 
soluble  solids.  The  end  of  the  operation  obtains  when  the 
fluid  within  these  cells  is  of  the  same  density  as  the  sur- 
rounding medium. 

The  advantages  of  diffusion  over  the  older  methods  of  mill- 
ing, to  extract  the  juice  of  sugar-producing  plants,  will  be  seen 
from  the  statement  that  95  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  present  can 
be  secured  by  the  new  method,3  whilst  the  old  processes  gave 
only  50. 

The  method  of  diffusion  is  used  in  the  beet-sugar  factories 
of  Europe  with  marked  success.  The  late  experiments  at  Fort 
Scott,  applying  this  process  to  sorghum  cane,  resulted  in  a 
marked  success  for  extracting  the  juice.  From  the  diffusion 
experiments  with  sugar-cane,  it  was  found  that  the  yield  of 
sugar  was  the  highest  ever  obtained  from  sugar-cane.4  By  this 
same  process  a  larger  percentage  of  sugar  was  yielded  than 
that  from  the  richer  tropical  cane  with  the  old  methods. 

The  marked  cellular  character  of  the  sorghum  adapts  it 
to  the  process  of  diffusion  more  readily  than  is  the  case  with 
the  sugar  beet. 

It  may  be  of  interest  briefly  to  describe  the  process  of 
diffusion,  and  the  subsequent  methods  of  defecation  and 
carbonatation  employed  in  these  experiments.5 

The  cane  is  cut  and  transported  from  the  field  to  the  fac- 
tory, where,  by  means  of  carriers,  it  is  conveyed  to  the  cut- 
ters. 

In  the  case  of  sorghum,  it  should  be  cleaned  of  its  blades 

1  Manuel  Pratique  de  Diffusion,  par  Fleury  et  Lemaine. 

2  Dubrunfault. 

8  Bui.  No.  8,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  15.  From  Bui.  No.  2,  Chem. 
Soc.  of  Washington,  p.  29,  by  H.  W.  Wiley. 

4  Bui.  No.  14,  p.  51. 

6  The  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  beet-root  and 
sorghum  was  shown  by  lantern  projections. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  227 

and  sheath  before  being  submitted  to  the  cutting  machine. 
The  cane  leaves  the  cutters  in  small  chips  ready  to  fill  the  dif- 
fusion battery,  which  is  composed  of  vessels  technically  called 
cells,  of  various  sizes;  those  at  Fort  Scott1  held  1900  pounds 
of  chips,  and  had  a  capacity  of  75  cubic  feet  each. 

These  cells  may  be  disposed  in  a  row  or  in  a  circular  arrange- 
ment as  is  usual  in  the  beet-sugar  factories  abroad.  The  cells 
are  connected  by  means  of  pipes  for  the  passage  of  water 
from  tanks  to  the  cells  of  the  battery,  and  for  the  flow  of  water 
from  cell  to  cell.  Calorisators  for  heating  are  connected  with 
the  cells,  and  an  apparatus  for  compressed  air  to  drive  the 
water  from  the  chips  when  the  process  is  over.  The  best  tem- 
perature for  sorghum  diffusion  is  about  70°  Centigrade,2  and 
for  sugar-cane  90°  Centigrade.3 

The  cells  are  filled  with  the  chips  from  above  by  an  opening 
in  the  top,  and  when  the  diffusion  is  over  they  are  removed 
by  opening  a  discharge  gate  of  the  diameter  of  the  cell  at  its 
bottom.  This  door  is  held  firmly  in  place,  during  the  extrac- 
tion, by  an  hydraulic  joint  of  circular  rubber  tubing,  the 
pressure  within  the  tube  being  greater  than  within  the  cell. 

The  flow  of  water  through  the  cell  is  controlled  by  pressure, 
and  passes  from  the  cell  first  filled  to  the  last  one  of  the  battery. 
The  water  enters  the  first  cell  by  means  of  a  valve  from  below, 
and  is  turned  off,  when  it  overflows,  from  an  air  valve  above. 
The  pipes  are  reversed,  and  fresh  water  driven  in  from  above 
cell  i,  to  displace  its  contents  of  saccharine  liquid,  which 
then  flows  below  into  cell  2,  as  the  fresh  water  originally  passed 
into  cell  i  from  the  bottom  upwards.  This  process  is  continual, 
making  a  complete  system  of  displacement,  the  water  as  it 
passes  from  cell  to  cell  becoming  more  dense.  Whilst  the  last 
cell  is  filling,  cell  i  is  emptied  of  the  chips  and  refilled  with  a 
fresh  charge. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  a  battery  of  14  cells  all  in 
operation,  12  cells  would  be  under  pressure  and  one  filling 
and  the  other  emptying. 

1  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  by  H.  W.  Wiley,  p.  9. 
3  Ibid.,  p.  40. 
»  Ibid.,  p.  45. 


228       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  fluid  from  the  diffusion  cell  is  placed  in  tanks  for  de- 
fecation with  lime,  which  is  added  in  the  amount  of  1.5  per 
cent,  for  sorghum;  l  though  .75  per  cent,  has  been  found 
ample  in  the  case  of  juice  from  the  sugar-cane.2 

Much  of  the  albuminoid  and  non-sugar  organic  substances 
are  carried  down,  and  the  sugar  forms  a  soluble  lime  sucrate. 
Carbonic  acid  is  then  pumped  in,  and  the  lime  is  precipitated, 
and  with  it  further  impurities.  This  process  of  single  carbona- 
tation  was  found  to  work  better  with  sorghum  juice  than 
double  carbonatation.3 

The  contents  of  the  tanks  are  then  carried  to  filter  presses, 
and  the  clear  juice  recovered  from  the  lime  cake.  This  juice 
is  partially  evaporated,  and  then  whilst  hot  put  through  bone- 
black  filters.  The  final  evaporation  of  juice  is  conducted  in 
vacuum  pans  and  its  crystallization  ends  the  process. 

Among  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  this  process  is  the 
acidity  of  the  chips  in  the  diffusion  cells.  This  will  cause  a 
loss  from  inversion  of  the  sucrose  and  a  greatly  diminished 
yield  of  crystallizable  sugar.  The  high  temperature  needed 
for  the  diffusion  will  aid  in  bringing  about  a  lil$.e  result  when 
the  canes  are  not  in  proper  condition.4 

Various  means  were  tried  to  prevent  this  inversion.  It  is 
probable  that  fine  carbonate  of  lime,  if  sprinkled  over  the 
chips  before  they  enter  the  battery,  may  obviate  the  diffi- 
culty.5 

The  addition  of  lime  to  the  water  tanks  which  supply  the 
diffusion  cells  was  not  favorable  for  the  full  extraction  of  the 
sugar.  Analysis  showed  2  per  cent,  less  of  sugar  in  this  juice. 
The  loss  was  probably  induced  by  the  coagulation  of  the 
albumin  of  the  cane  cells.8 

The  addition  of  milk  of  lime  and  sulphurous  acid  7  to  the 
juice  has  a  preservative  effect,  and  juice  so  treated  may  be 
kept  unchanged  for  months. 

Among  the  reasons  advanced  for  the  process  of  carbonatation 
may  be  mentioned  that  it  does  away  with  skimming  the  juices. 

1  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  54.  2  Ibid.,  p.  54. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  25.  *  Ibid.,  p.  28.  6  Ibid.,  p.  32. 

6  Ibid.,  p.  20.  7  Bui.  No.  3,  pp.  96,  97. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  229 

From  analysis  of  the  scum  the  quantity  of  the  sugar  in  it  was 
found  to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  juice.1  Thus  a  source  of  waste 
is  prevented. 

The  maximum  yield  of  sugar  can  be  obtained  from  car- 
bonization, but  it  is  fatal  to  the  manufacture  of  molasses,  as 
it  darkens  too  much  the  juice.  But  Dr.  Wiley  has  suggested  a 
modification  of  the  process,  which,  he  believes,  will  prevent 
this  difficulty.2 

From  the  last  "  Chemical  Bulletin  of  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment," 3  published  since  the  Fort  Scott  experiments, 
the  chemist  in  charge,  in  a  general  review  of  the  work,  points 
to  the  "absolute  failure  of  the  experiments  to  demonstrate 
the  commercial  practicability  of  manufacturing  sorghum 
sugar."  Among  the  causes  of  this  failure  he  mentions:  — 

"i.  Defective  machinery  for  cutting  the  cane  and  for  ele- 
vating and  cleaning  the  chips  and  for  removing  exhausted 
chips. 

"2.  The  deterioration  of  the  cane,  due  to  much  of  it  be- 
coming over  ripe,  but  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  time  would  gener- 
ally elapse  after  the  canes  were  cut  before  they  reached  the 
diffusion  batteries. 

"3.  The  deteriorated  cane  caused  a  considerable  inver- 
sion of  the  sucrose  in  the  battery  —  an  inversion  which  was 
increased  by  the  delay  in  furnishing  chips,  owing  to  the  de- 
fects of  machinery." 

The  chemist  in  charge  of  these  experiments  states  that  he 
should  be  glad  to  "leave  this  industry  in  a  more  promising 
condition.  All  admit  that  the  process  of  diffusion  has  been 
successfully  worked  out."  And  to  this  opinion  Dr.  Wiley 
subscribed,  "with  the  reservation  that  a  proper  mechanical 
method  for  distributing  over  the  chips  a  substance  to  prevent 
inversion  of  the  sucrose  has  not  yet  been  discovered." 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  method  of 
treating  the  diffusion  juices.  Some  method  of  purification  by 
carbonatation  or  other  means,  may  easily  be  decided  on.  But 

1  Bui.  No.  5,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  57. 

2  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  p.  40. 

3  Ibid. 


23o       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

it  was  shown  at  Rio  Grande  that  the  juice  from  clean  cane 
can  be  worked  without  purification. 

"Last  of  all,  the  chief  thing  to  be  accomplished  is  the  pro- 
duction of  a  sorghum  plant  containing  a  reasonably  constant 
percentage  of  crystallizable  sugar." l 

The  above  statement  appears  to  be  where  the  sorghum 
industry  rests  for  a  solution  of  the  problem. 

"The  universal  experience  of  practical  manufacturers 
shows  that  the  average  constitution  of  the  sorghum  cane  is  far 
inferior  to  that  indicated  in  many  of  the  tables  of  analyses." 2 

"  Taking  the  means  of  several  seasons  as  a  sure  basis  of  com- 
putation, it  can  now  be  said  that  the  juices  of  the  sorghum 
as  they  come  from  the  mill  do  not  contain  over  10  per  cent, 
of  sucrose;  whilst  the  percentage  of  other  solids  in  solution 
is  at  least  4.  It  is  needless  to  say  to  a  practical  sugar-maker 
that  the  working  of  such  a  juice  is  one  of  extreme  difficulty, 
and  the  output  of  sugar  is  necessarily  small.3 

"It  is  true  the  present  outlook  is  discouraging;  but  dis- 
couragement is  not  defeat.  The  time  has  now  come  for  solid, 
energetic  work.  Science  and  practice  must  join  improved 
agriculture,  and  all  together  can  accomplish  what  neither 
alone  would  ever  be  able  to  achieve."  4 

The  beet-sugar  factory  at  Alvarado  makes  money  with  a 
competition  of  free  cane  sugar  imported  from  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  under  the  one-sided  reciprocity  treaty  now  in  force. 

As  this  is  so,  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  sorghum 
should  not  compete  with  other  sugars  when  its  physiology  and 
chemistry  have  become  better  known. 

Compelled  now  to  accept  the  fact  that  there  is  no  sound 
scientific  expectation  for  the  immediate  success  financially 
of  the  production  of  sugar  from  sorghum,  we  are  only  the  more 
compelled  to  mark  the  present  difficulties,  and  point  out,  as 
I  have  done,  the  lines  of  research  that  will  finally  enable  the 
problem  of  an  indigenous  sugar  supply  to  be  safely  solved. 

1  Bui.  No.  14,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,,  p.  42. 

2  Bui.  No.  5,  Chem.  Div.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1885. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  185. 

4  Ibid.,  p.  187. 


SUGAR  FROM  SORGHUM  231 

Years  of  struggle  preceded  the  final  success  of  the  best  sugar 
production,  made  possible  only  by  the  persevering  investiga- 
tions of  chemists  supported  by  the  determination  of  the  French 
Government  to  prevent  the  admission  of  foreign  sugars.  The 
full  profitable  employment  of  the  beet-sugar  factories  of  Europe 
and  jthe  financial  success  of  the  one  enterprise  in  California, 
all  warrant  the  hope  of  our  establishing  an  indigenous  sugar 
industry  from  sorghum  as  well.  By  means  of  scientific  dis- 
covery carried  on  if  requisite  at  experimental  stations  sup- 
ported by  Government  aid,  or  if  undertaken  commercially 
by  private  enterprises  aided  by  full  protection  or  an  adequate 
system  of  bounties,  the  final  result  will  be  reached,  and  we 
shall  save  the  millions  now  sent  abroad  for  sugar,  and  estab- 
lish our  independence  in  this  particular  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 

It  is  not  meant  that  the  sorghum  growers  should  profit  at 
the  expense  of  other  sugar  growers.  It  has  been  indicated 
that  our  great  country  can  grow  several  kinds  of  sugar  crops. 
Each  is  to  contribute  its  share.  "There  should  be  no  enmity 
between  the  grower  of  sorghum,  the  sugar  beet,  and  the  sugar- 
cane, but  all  should  work  in  harmony  for  the  general  good."  1 

It  will  be  observed  that  I  have  not  attempted  to  give  a  his- 
tory of  the  sorghum  enterprise,  nor  to  dwell  upon  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  mechanical  or  chemical  methods  which  have  cost 
so  much  time  and  money  with  so  little  success.  The  very 
latest  series  of  experiments  of  diffusion  and  its  chemistry  as 
conducted  under  the  direction  of  the  chemist  of  the  Agricul- 
tural Bureau  himself,  at  Fort  Scott,  is  placed  at  your  service, 
and  the  failure  to  solve  the  sugar  problem  but  increases  the 
duties  of  students  of  plant  chemistry,  whose  researches  and 
faithful  studies  will  alone  make  it  possible  to  surmount  many 
of  these  difficulties,  we  trust  in  the  near  future. 

1  Bui.  No.  5,  p.  187. 


THE   CHEMICAL  BASIS    OF   PLANT   FORMS  l 

THE  boundary  between  the  mineral  and  vegetable  kingdom 
is  not  a  definite  line.  The  individual  of  the  one  encroaches  upon 
the  dominion  of  the  other.  The  terms  " non-living''  and  "living 
matter"  are  only  relatively  accurate.  "Nature  in  all  its  mani- 
festations constitutes  a  unity,"  .  .  .  and  "all  matter  is  in  a 
sense  living."  2 

Through  chemical  evolution  a  condition  of  matter  obtains 
favorable  for  functional  activity  or  life.  This  state  may  be  de- 
scribed 3  "as  a  colloidal  albuminoid  united  with  more  or  less 
water."  Its  simplest  expression  is  found  in  the  low  forms  of 
plants,  slime-mould  for  example.  This  colloidal  basis  of  life 
is  protoplasm,  a  chemical  compound  of  complex  constitution, 
very  unstable,  and  manifesting  when  alive  certain  properties 
called  vital,  or  "biotic."  4 

Active  chemical  changes  are  inseparably  associated  with  both 
living  and  dead  protoplasm.  Synthetical  or  progressive  pro- 
cesses prevail  in  life,  analytical  or  retrogressive  in  death. 

Absorption,  metabolism,  excretion,  reproduction,  contrac- 
tility, automatism,  and  irritability  are  the  properties  of  living 
matter;  disorganization  and  dissociation  those  of  dead  matter. 

Chemists  have  to  discover  the  subtle  differences  between  the 
chemical  equation  of  living  and  dead  protoplasm. 

I  wish  to  speak  of  some  of  the  chemical  compounds  of  plants, 
or  more  properly  the  chemical  forms,  since  the  structure  of  all 
plants  is  built  up  of  chemical  constituents.  This  subject  is  as 
extensive  as  the  genera  and  species  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Last  August,  I  read  a  paper  on  "  Certain  Chemical  Con- 

1  A  lecture   delivered  before  the  Franklin   Institute,  January  24,    1887. 
Printed  in  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  September,  1887;   also  re- 
printed in  pamphlet  form,  Philadelphia,  1887. 

2  Mineral  Physiology  and  Physiography,  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt.  Boston,  1886, 
p.  18.  3  Ibid.  *  Dr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF  PLANT  FORMS      233 

stituents  of  Plants  considered  in  Relation  to  their  Morphology 
and  Evolution."  L    The  facts  cited  tended  to  show  a  chemical 
progression  in  plants,  and  a  mutual  dependence  between  chem- 
ical constituents  and  change  of  form. 
Among  the  conclusions  reached  were  the  following:  — 

1.  A  similarity  of  one  or  more  chemical  constituents  is  to 
be  found  in  all  plants  which  are  equally  developed,  and  on  the 
same  evolutionary  plane. 

2.  The  evolution  of  chemical  constituents  follows  parallel 
lines  with  the  evolutionary  course  of  plant  forms,  the  one 
being  intimately  connected  with  the  other,  and  consequently 
chemical  constituents  are  indicative  of  the  height  of  the  scale 
of  progression,  and  are  essentially  appropriate  for  a  basis  of 
botanical  classification;  in  other  words,  the  theory  of  evolu- 
tion in  plant  life  is  best  illustrated  by  the  chemical  constituents 
of  vegetable  forms. 

Chemistry  will  aid  us  to  comprehend  the  laws  of  evolution 
controlling  plant  forms.  Evolution  should  also  apply  to  chem- 
ical compounds  as  well  as  to  morphology,  since  the  latter  can 
be  shown  to  depend  upon  chemistry  in  general. 

We  have  no  certain  knowledge  of  the  precise  chemical  changes 
which  take  place  in  transforming  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur  and  other  elements  into  the  starches  and 
proteids.  We  know,  however,  certainly  the  necessary  condi- 
tions for  many  of  these  changes.  The  law  controlling  the  ab- 
solute relation,  or  the  connective  link,  between  the  form  of  a 
plant  and  its  chemical  composition  is  undetermined.  But  in- 
vestigations in  plant  chemistry  have  not  been  conducted  with 
this  end  in  view.  The  facts  which  I  have  to  offer,  to  sustain  the 
theory  of  a  possible  relation  between  plant  forms  and  chemical 
compounds,  may  seem  to  some  inadequate,  but  no  other  expla- 
nation than  the  one  offered  to  account  for  these  statements  has 
been  suggested. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  cell-contents  and  wall  has 
been  determined  in  many  plants;  also  of  their  roots,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruits. 

1  Chem.  Section  A.  A.  A.  Science,  Buffalo,  1886.  Abstract,  Botanical  Gazette, 
xi,  No.  10,  October,  1886.  See  p.  168. 


234        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Most  of  the  ash- constituents  essential  or  injurious  to  the 
growth  and  development  of  plants  are  known,  and  also  the  va- 
riations in  growth  caused  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain 
inorganic  compounds. 

The  chemical  changes  through  which  many  plants  pass  from 
the  germination  of  their  seed  to  maturity  and  decay  are  also 
known,  each  separate  stage  of  growth  showing  a  distinct  chem- 
ical composition  or  a  predominance  of  some  one  chemical  com- 
pound. 

It  should  be  especially  noted  that  some  chemical  compounds 
occur  in  certain  species  of  plants  and  do  not  occur  in  others. 
Certain  classes  of  compounds  are  found  widely  distributed 
through  the  plant  kingdom,  accompanied  by  correlated  mor- 
phological characters.  Some  one  compound,  as  saponin,  will 
be  found  with  similar  botanical  characters  in  plants  of  distinct 
genera  and  families,  on  the  same  plane  of  evolution  or  devel- 
opment. 

It  cannot  be  the  result  of  accident  that  cinchona  and  related 
plants  contain,  quinine;  and  other  plants,  distributed  through 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  their  own  typical  compounds.  Nor  can 
it  be  the  result  of  accident,  or  changes  produced  by  climate 
or  other  causes,  that  an  absence  of  some  one  or  more  com- 
pounds is  accompanied  by  a  modification  of  the  exterior  of 
the  plant. 

Before  taking  up  the  consideration  of  the  above  statements 
in  detail,  it  may  be  well  to  study  briefly  two  properties  1  of  liv- 
ing protoplasm,  namely,  absorption  and  metabolism. 

The  seeds  of  plants  are  the  storehouses  of  a  certain  amount 
of  latent  energy  or  life,  elaborated  by  the  parent  plant  and 
stored  up  in  the  form  of  complex  chemical  compounds.  Under 
suitable  conditions  of  warmth  and  moisture,  certain  chemical 
changes  take  place  within  the  seed.  The  latent  energy  becomes 
active,  and  the  seedling  grows,  feeding  upon  its  food  supply 
until  it  has  exhausted  its  store. 

At  this  stage  the  little  plant  must  seek  its  food  from  without, 
from  the  atmosphere  and  the  soil.  The  soil  is  of  varying  and 
complex  composition,  containing,  between  its  particles,  gases 

1  Lectures  on  the  Physiology  of  Plants,  by  S.  H.  Vines.   Cambridge,  1886. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT  FORMS      235 

and  moisture.  The  air  which  surrounds  the  leaves  of  land  plants 
is  a  mixture  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  with  small  quantities  of 
carbon-dioxide,  ammonia,  varying  quantities  of  aqueous  vapor, 
and  occasionally  traces  of  nitric  acid. 

The  elements  from  these  media  are  absorbed  by  different 
parts  of  the  plant,  and  there  is  a  difference  in  the  manner  of 
absorption  by  fungi,  parasites,  air  plants,  and  green  plants. 
However,  the  elements  which  are  absolutely  essential  for  the 
nutrition  and  maintenance  of  the  life  of  all  plants  are  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  in  the  case  of  green  plants,  and,  in 
certain  cases,  chlorine. 

It  is  characteristic  of  plants  that  they  must  absorb  their  food 
in  the  fluid  form.  The  absorbent  organs  of  plants  are  the  roots, 
for  water  and  salts  in  solution,  and  the  leaves,  for  gases.  In  the 
lower  plants,  where  there  are  no  roots  or  leaves,  water  or  sub- 
stances in  solution  and  gases  are  absorbed  either  directly  by 
the  cells  of  the  thallus,  or  by  root  hairs.  Among  the  higher 
plants,  the  root  hairs  and  the  uncuticularized  epidermal  cells 
of  the  younger  roots  are  active  in  absorbing  material  from  the 
soil.  Any  part  of  the  plant,  if  immersed  in  water,  will  absorb  a 
smaller  or  a  larger  quantity  of  it;  as,  for  instance,  cut  flowers 
placed  with  their  cut  ends  in  water  will  absorb,  for  a  time,  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  withering.  The  absorption  of  gases  in  higher 
plants  is  by  means  of  the  leaves,  for  it  has  been  found  that  car- 
bon-dioxide is  absorbed  from  the  air  by  those  organs  which  are 
green  and  contain  chlorophyll ;  and  in  experiments  where  the 
carbon- dioxide  of  the  air  was  cut  off  from  the  leaves,  though  it 
was  supplied  to  the  roots,  it  was  found  that  the  plant  could  not' 
live  long.  It  has  also  been  found  that  the  presence  of  carbon- 
dioxide  in  another  part  of  the  plant  does  not  contribute  to  the 
formation  of  starch  in  the  leaves. 

Green  plants  obtain  their  carbon  from  the  carbon-dioxide  of 
the  air.  Plants  which  do  not  contain  chlorophyll  obtain  their 
carbon  by  the  absorption  of  complex  organic  substances.  Green 
plants  can  absorb  complex  carbon  compounds,  and  it  has  been 
proved  by  direct  experiment  that  they  can  take  up  these  com- 
plex substances  when  supplied  to  their  roots. 


236        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Darwin *  has  shown  that  the  insectivorous  plants,  by  means 
of  their  modified  leaves,  absorb  complex  compounds,  and  that 
these  are  of  importance  in  their  nutrition.  Flies  and  other  small 
insects  may  often  be  found  clasped  in  the  tentacles  of  the 
Drosera,  and  in  those  experiments  small  pieces  of  meat,  when 
placed  on  the  leaves,  were  dissolved  after  a  time  by  the  secre- 
tions of  the  leaf  glands  and  absorbed. 

Hydrogen  is  absorbed  by  all  plants  in  combination  in  the 
form  of  water  or  ammonia  and  its  compounds,  or  in  the  com- 
plex substances  mentioned  above. 

Oxygen  is  taken  up  by  plants,  free  or  in  combination  in  water 
or  in  salts.  The  free  oxygen  is  especially  concerned  in  destruc- 
tive metabolic  processes.  The  large  quantities  of  this  gas  ab- 
sorbed by  plants,  and  especially  by  fungi,  show  conclusively 
its  consumption  in  metabolic  processes. 

The  process  known  as  the  respiration  of  plants  is  the  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen  and  the  exhalation  of  carbon-dioxide. 

The  researches  of  Garreau2  show  that  two  distinct  processes 
are  in  operation  when  leaves  are  exposed  to  the  light :  in  the  one 
oxygen  is  absorbed  and  carbon-dioxide  is  exhaled;  in  the  other, 
carbon-dioxide  is  absorbed  and  oxygen  is  exhaled.  When  the 
leaves  are  exposed  to  a  very  bright  sunlight,  carbon-dioxide  is 
absorbed  and  oxygen  is  exhaled,  and  the  activity  of  these  pro- 
cesses is  so  much  greater  than  the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  the 
exhalation  of  carbon-dioxide,  that  it  appears  as  if  the  former 
only  were  in  operation. 

Gases,  like  solids,  can  be  assimilated  only  in  solution,  and  as 
they  are  soluble  in  water,  the  cell  walls  of  submerged  plants 
may  absorb  them,  and  the  sap  near  the  surface  of  land  plants 
will  dissolve  the  gases  from  the  atmosphere.  The  sap  of  plants 
contains,  in  solution,  carbon-dioxide,  oxygen,  and  also  a  certain 
amount  of  free  nitrogen.  That  this  nitrogen  does  not  enter  into 
the  metabolism  of  the  plant  seems  completely  decided  by  the 
experiments  3  of  Lawes,  Gilbert,  and  Pugh;  but  the  more  recent 
experiments  of  Atwater  4  and  Hellriegel 5  should  be  compared 

1  Insectivorous  Plants.  2  Ann.  d.  Sci.  Nat.,  ser.  3,  t.  xv. 

3  Phil.  Trans.,  1860.  4  Amer.  Chem.  Jour.,  viii,  Nos.  5  and  6. 

5  Zeit.  d.  Ver.  j.  d.  Rubenzucker  Industrie,  Nov.,  1886. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF  PLANT  FORMS      237 

in  this  connection,  and  the  matter  cannot  be  said  to  be  definitely 
settled. 

I  can  only  enumerate  in  this  connection,  without  going  into 
the  subject,  the  possible  sources1  of  the  nitrogen  supply:  — 

1.  Organic,  nitrogenous  matter. 

2.  The  ammonia  of  the  air,  and  of  the  ocean. 

3.  The  nitrous  and  nitric  compounds  formed  by  combus- 
tion and  by  electric  discharges. 

4.  Nitrogen  fixed  in  the  soil  by  microbes. 

5.  The  free  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere. 

6.  Mineral  nitrates. 

The  sap  which  is  continually  flowing  through  living  plants 
is  a  watery  fluid,  holding  in  solution  mineral  matters,  gases, 
and  organic  substances.  The  root  hairs  of  plants  penetrate  the 
particles  of  soil  and  absorb  the  moisture  from  a  film  which  sur- 
rounds each  particle :  this  is  known  as  hygroscopic  water.  In 
thallophytes,  the  absorption  is  effected  by  the  cells  of  the 
thallus,  and  in  epiphytes  a  membrane  invests  the  air  roots 
especially  adapted  for  the  purpose.  The  distribution  of  water 
takes  place  —  at  least  to  some  extent  —  by  the  same  pro- 
cess as  its  absorption.  It  passes  by  osmosis  from  cell  to 
cell,  as  it  passes  originally  from  without  into  the  superficial 
cells  of  the  plant.  The  direction  of  this  movement  is  not 
necessarily  constant.  The  proportion  of  water  in  each  cell 
varies  and  the  tendency  to  establish  a  fluid  equilibrium  will 
cause  a  current  towards  those  tissues  which  are  deficient.  These 
statements  apply  equally  to  gases  and  other  substances  held  in 
solution,  which  are  needed  for  the  continuance  of  the  chemical 
and  physical  changes  going  on  in  the  living  cells  of  different 
parts  of  the  plant. 

The  changes  are  more  active  for  different  substances  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  plant.  The  mineral  substances  absorbed  by 
the  roots  pass  up  to  the  leaves,  where  they  are  concerned  in  the 
constructive  metabolism  going  on  in  those  organs.  The  pro- 
ducts of  these  processes  pass  from  the  leaves  to  parts  of  the  plant 
which  are  actively  growing,  and  where  plastic  material  is  re- 

1  "The  Economical  Aspect  of  Agr.  Chemistry."  By  H.  W.  Wiley.  Proc. 
A.  A.  A.  S.,  xxxv,  1886. 


238        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

quired,  or  to  the  seeds  or  other  organs  in  which  organic  stores 
are  being  laid  up. 

If  the  stems  or  plants  are  cut  in  the  spring,  a  flow  of  sap  pro- 
ceeds from  the  cut  surface  of  that  portion  of  the  stem  which  is 
connected  with  the  roots.  This  fact  was  investigated  by  Hales.1 
He  concluded  that  there  is  "  a  considerable  energy  in  the  root  to 
push  up  sap  in  the  bleeding  season."  This  force  is  termed  the 
root  pressure,  and  is  the  measure  of  the  absorbent  activity  of 
the  root  hairs.  The  root  pressure  is  not  only  manifested  by  caus- 
ing the  flow  of  sap;  it  also  may  cause  the  exudation  of  drops 
of  sap  on  the  surface.  There  is  a  marked  periodicity  in  the  flow 
of  sap,  which  is  not  due  to  the  immediate  result  of  variations 
in  external  conditions,  but  is  inherent  in  the  absorbent  cells 
themselves. 

The  current  travels  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves  through  the 
lignified  cell  walls  of  the  wood  of  the  plant.  The  activity  of  the 
exhalation  of  watery  vapor  from  the  plant  is  not  the  same  from 
its  surfaces.  The  refreshing  effect  of  a  shower  on  withered 
leaves  is  due  to  the  moisture  penetrating  the  soil  and  being 
absorbed  by  the  root  hairs.  From  experiments  2  it  has  been 
shown  that  if  the  air  is  very  moist,  and  the  leaves  dry,  the  leaf 
surfaces  may  absorb  a  little  water. 

The  cuticle  offers  a  certain  amount  of  resistance  to  the  pas- 
sage through  it  of  vapor  ;  this  is  due  to  resinous  or  waxy  sub- 
stances contained  in  it.  The  Mexican  ocotilla 3  offers  a  striking 
example.  It  grows  in  very  dry  and  exposed  parts  of  the  country, 
where  rainfalls  are  infrequent.  The  bark  is  chiefly  composed 
of  wax  and  resinous  substances. 

Other  substances,  as  well  as  water,  can  be  absorbed  by 
leaves,4  experiments  having  shown  that  if  a  drop  of  calcium  sul- 
phate solution  be  placed  on  a  leaf,  it  will  have  disappeared  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours.  This  is  more  rapid  when  placed  on 
the  under  surface.  Though  it  seems  that  leaves  may  absorb 
water  and  substances  in  solution  under  certain  circumstances, 

1  Statical  Essays,  i,  1769  (4th  edition). 

2  Detmer  and  Boussingault. 

3  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  Proc.  A.  A.  A.  S.,  xxxiii.  See  p.  117. 

4  Boussingault,  Ann.  Chem.  et  Phys.,  ser.  V,  xiii;  also  Agronomic,  VI,  1878. 
Mayer,  Landwirthschajtl.  Versuchs-Stat.,  xvii,  1874. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT   FORMS       239 

the  especial  absorptive  function  of  leaves  is  the  absorption  of 
gases,  as  has  been  already  explained. 

The  subject  of  the  ash-constituents  of  plants  is  a  very  impor- 
tant one  in  this  connection.  The  essential  mineral  constituents 
of  plants  have  already  been  mentioned;  silicon,  fluorine,  manga- 
nese, sodium,  lithium,  rubidium,  caesium,  barium,  aluminium, 
zinc,  copper,  titanium,  iodine,  and  bromine  have  also  been 
found  among  the  ash  ingredients  of  certain  plants. 

The  method  of  absorption  of  soluble  mineral  salts  has  already 
been  described.  A  solution  of  insoluble  salts  is  brought  about 
in  a  different  way.  A  soil  rich  in  organic  matter  is  always 
charged  with  carbon- dioxide,  and  this  gas  is  also  given  off  by 
the  roots  of  living  plants.  Water  containing  this  gas  is  able  to 
dissolve  calcium  carbonate  and  some  silicates  that  are  insolu- 
ble in  pure  water.  The  presence  of  certain  soluble  salts  in  the 
soil  brings  about  a  decomposition  and  renders  the  insoluble  salts 
more  readily  soluble.  Finally,  the  insoluble  salts  are  brought 
into  solution  by  means  of  the  acid  sap  which  saturates  the  cell 
wall  of  the  root  hair.  This  acid  is  not  carbonic  acid,  for  its  red- 
dening of  litmus  paper  is  permanent. 

It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  the  chemical  elements 
are  not  universally  absorbed  by  roots  in  their  combinations  in 
the  soil. 

The  wide  differences  in  the  composition  of  the  ashes  of 
plants  show  that  each  plant  is  endowed  with  a  specific  absorb- 
ent capacity.  It  is  upon  this  fact  that  the  "rotation  of  crops" 
in  farming  depends.  A  gramineous  plant 1  is  able  to  withdraw 
relatively  larger  quantities  of  silica  from  the  soil  than  a  legu- 
minous plant.  The  latter  can  only  do  so  to  a  very  slight  extent. 

The  absorbent  capacities  of  nearly  allied  species  are  very  dif- 
ferent; again,  individuals  of  the  same  species  yield  different  ash 
compositions,  depending  upon  their  vigor;  and  the  absorbent 
capacity  of  the  plant  varies  at  different  periods  of  its  life.  It  has 
been  stated  that  "  similar  kinds  of  plants,  and  especially  the 
same  parts  of  similar  plants,  exhibit  a  close  general  agreement 
in  the  composition  of  their  ashes,  while  plants  which  are  unlike 
in  their  botanical  characters  are  also  unlike  in  the  proportions 

1  Wolff,  Aschenanalysen,  1871. 


24o        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  their  fixed  ingredients."  1  If  an  ash-constituent  can  pass 
through  a  cell  wall,  its  absorption  will  take  place  independently 
of  its  use  or  harmfulness  to  the  plant,  but  the  absorption  of  es- 
sential inorganic  constituents  will  depend  upon  its  relation  to 
the  metabolism  of  the  plant. 

The  ash- constituents  of  a  plant  increase  from  the  roots  up- 
wards to  the  leaves,  a  fact  showing  that  the  leaves  are  the  organs 
in  which  more  especially  active  chemical  changes  take  place. 

The  ash  ingredients  are  usually  present  in  each  plant  cell;  in 
the  cell  wall,  imbedded  in  the  cellulose,  and  partly  in  the  con- 
tents of  the  cell.  The  salts  of  the  alkaline  metals  and  of  the  sul- 
phates and  the  chlorides  of  magnesium  and  calcium  occur  in 
the  solution  of  the  sap.  Silica  and  phosphates  of  calcium  and 
magnesium  are  mostly  insoluble  and  exist  in  the  tissues  of  the 
plant. 

Water- culture  experiments  2  have  shown  the  essential  ash- 
ingredients.  Potassium,  like  phosphorus,  is  always  found  in 
relation  with  living  protoplasm.  If  3  the  plant  was  not  supplied 
with  potassium,  it  grew  very  little,  and  very  little  starch  was 
formed  in  the  chlorophyll  corpuscles  of  the  leaves.  On  the  addi- 
tion of  potassium  chloride,  the  starch  grains  became  more  nu- 
merous in  the  leaves,  and  made  their  appearance  in  other  parts 
of  the  plants.  Potassium,  doubtless,  plays  an  important  role 
in  the  formation  and  the  storing  up  of  carbohydrates,  for  the 
organs  in  which  these  processes  are  active,  as  the  leaves,  seeds, 
and  tubers,  are  found  to  be  the  richest  in  this  element. 

It  has  been  observed  that  caesium  4  and  rubidium  can  replace 
potassium  in  the  food  of  certain  fungi  (mould,  yeast,  and  bac- 
teria). 

Salm-Horstmar  describes  5  some  experiments,  from  which 
he  infers  that  minute  traces  of  lithium  and  fluorine  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  fruiting  of  barley.  The  same  investigator  has 
concluded  that  a  trace  of  titanic  acid  is  a  necessary  ingredient 
of  plants. 

How  Crops  Grow,  by  S.  W.  Johnson,  London,  p.  145. 
Nobbe,  Siegert,  Wolff,  Stohmann,  Sachs,  and  others. 
Nobbe,  Die  organische  Leistung  des  Kaliums,  1871. 
Naegeli,  Sitzber.  d.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.  zu  Munchen,  1880. 
Jour,  jur  Prakt.  Chem.,  1884,  p.  140. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT  FORMS       241 

Zinc l  is  also  a  frequent  constituent  of  plants  growing  about 
zinc  mines.  Certain  marked  varieties  of  plants  are  peculiar  to, 
and  appear  to  have  been  developed  by  such  soils,  as  the  violet, 
var.  calaminaris,  and  penny- cress.  In  the  leaves  of  the  latter 
plants,  thirteen  per  cent,  of  zinc  oxide  was  found ;  in  other  plants 
from  .3  per  cent,  to  3.3  per  cent. 

From  the  investigations  of  Baumann,2  insoluble  zinc  salts  in 
the  soil  are  harmless  to  plants.  All  plants  excepting  the  Coni- 
ferae  speedily  die  in  a  solution  containing  10  mg.  zinc  to  the  litre, 
though  traces  of  zinc  in  solution  are  harmless. 

The  specific  action  of  zinc  on  the  vegetable  organism  consists 
in  a  destruction  of  the  chlorophyl  coloring- matter  and  a  con- 
sequent stoppage  of  the  whole  process  of  assimilation. 

Experiments 3  on  maize,  oats,  buckwheat  show  that  arsenic 
attacks  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell  and  destroys  the  power  of 
osmose  by  the  roots. 

Sulphates  occur  in  the  cell  sap  of  organs  where  chemical 
changes  are  rapidly  taking  place,  and  are  doubtless  formed  in 
connection  with  the  decomposition  of  proteids.  Phosphorus 
occurs  in  actively  growing  cells  in  the  most  various  plants.  It 
has  been  found  present  in  the  green  coloring- matter  of  the 
leaves  and  is  always  found  in  relation  with  living  protoplasm. 
Schumacher4  holds  that  the  chief  work  of  the  alkaline  phos- 
phates is  the  acceleration  of  the  diffusion  of  these  difficultly 
diffusible  albuminoids. 

Calcium  is  especially  abundant  in  the  leaves  of  green  trees, 
and  it  cannot  be  replaced  in  the  food  of  green  leaves  by  any 
other  metal.  It  can  be  replaced  by  strontium,5  barium,  or  mag- 
nesium in  the  food  of  certain  fungi.  Magnesium 6  resembles 
lime  in  many  points,  but  is  present  in  larger  quantity  in  the 
stem  and  grain,  and  not  in  the  leaves  of  the  maize  plant. 

1  A.  Braun  and  Risse  (Sachs,  Exp.  Physiologic,  153). 

2  Landw.  Versuchs-Siat.,  xxxi,  1-53  (Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1884,  p.  1408). 

3  F.  Nobbe  and  others.  Landw.  Versuchs-Stat.,  xxx,  381-422  (Jour.  Chem. 
Soc.,  1884,  p.  1409). 

4  Physik  der  Pftanze,  p.  128. 

5  Naegeli. 

8  R.  Hornberger  and  E.  V.  Raumer,  Bied.  Centr.  Bl.,  1882,  837-844  (Jour. 
Chem.  Soc.,  1883,  p.  491). 


242        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Iron  is  found  to  be  essential  to  green  plants  only.  If  a  seed- 
ling be  cultivated  by  water  culture  in  a  fluid  containing  no  iron, 
the  leaves  will  become  pale  until  at  length  they  are  nearly  white, 
but  on  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  iron  to  the  solution, 
or  if  the  white  leaves  are  painted  with  a  dilute  iron  solution, 
they  will  very  shortly  become  green.  It  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  formation  of  the  green  coloring- matter,  though  it  does 
not  enter  into  its  chemical  composition. 

"  Buckwheat,1  barley,  and  oats  do  not  flourish  when  grown 
in  solutions  containing  no  chlorides,  and  as  in  these  plants  the 
chlorophyll  corpuscles  become  overfilled  with  starch  grains,  it 
was  thought  that  this  element  was  of  importance  in  connection 
with  the  translocation  of  carbohydrates." 

Sodium  2  has  been  used  in  water  culture  to  replace  potassium, 
but  the  plants  deprived  of  potash  did  not  develop. 

Manganese  is  abundant  in  the  ash  of  Trapa  natans.  I  also 
found  it  in  the  different  portions  of  Yucca  angustijolia.s 

Iodine  and  bromine  are  found  in  marine  Alga  and  in  minute 
quantity  in  some  plants  grown  far  from  the  sea. 

Silica  is  found  in  the  form  of  soluble  or  insoluble  silicic  acid. 
It  occurs  principally  in  the  cell  wall,  but  it  has  been  found  in  the 
cell  sap  of  a  plant  (Equisetum  hiemale  4),  and  certain  cells  in 
the  pseudo-bulbs  of  epiphytic  orchids 5  contain  each  a  plate  of 
silica. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  absorption  of  silicic  6  acid 
greatly  assists  the  assimilation  of  other  plant  foods,  and  that 
plants  to  which  it  is  supplied  show  a  decidedly  more  healthy 
development  of  grain  and  straw  than  others  not  so  treated. 
Silica  is  doubtless  of  mechanical  use,  giving  firmness  and  rigid- 
ity to  plant  tissues;  though  the  real  cause  of  "laying"  of  crops 


1  Vines,  Cambridge  edition,  p.  136.   Also,  Beyer,  Landw.  Versuchs-Stat.,  xi. 
Leydhecker,  ibid.,  viii. 

2  Salm-Horstmar,  Knop  and  Schreber. 

8  "Yucca  Angustifolia,"  Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  Trans.  Am.  Philos.  Soc., 
Dec.  18,  1885,  also  ante,  p.  126. 

4  Lange,  Ber.  d.  Deutsch.  Chem.  Ges.,  xi. 

6  Pfitzer,  Flora,  1877. 

8  C.  Kreuzhage  and  E.  Wolff,  Landw.  Versuchs-Stat.,  xxx,  161-198  (Jour. 
Chem.  Soc.,  1884,  p.  1112). 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF  PLANT  FORMS      243 

has  been  found  to  be  due  to  the  imperfect  development  of  the 
tissue  and  not  to  an  insufficient  supply  of  silica. 

The  percentage  of  ash- constituents  in  plants  varies,  but  the 
quantity  is  sufficient  to  be  a  very  important  factor  in  the  con- 
sideration of  chemical  forms  of  plants. 

I  have  already  said  that  the  albuminous  cell  contents,  called 
protoplasm,  are  always  present  in  the  living  cells  of  plants.  The 
introduction  into  the  cell  of  the  gases,  water,  and  inorganic  sub- 
stances goes  to  the  direct  formation  of  this  colloidal  body,  or 
assists  in  it. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  soil,  water,  and  atmosphere  supply 
the  food  of  all  plants.  It  would  be  of  interest  to  dwell  upon  the 
processes  of  assimilation  and  the  chemical  changes  that  go  on 
within  the  living  plant,  if  our  time  would  allow.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  nowhere  in  any  department  of  chemistry  have  our 
former  views  been  more  modified  than  in  the  physiological 
chemistry  of  the  vegetable  cell  during  the  last  three  years. 

For  example,  I  may  say  that,  at  least  in  some  plants,  nascent 
starch  passes  in  a  soluble  form  from  cell  to  cell  by  osmosis  with- 
out conversion  into  sugar,  as  was  formerly  held. 

Sugar  in  some  plants  may  be  regarded  as  a  waste  product, 
resulting  from  the  breaking  down  of  more  complex  substances, 
of  no  further  service  in  the  development  of  the  plant. 

Sorghum  1  cane,  at  the  time  of  the  maturing  of  the  seed  and 
the  full  growth  of  the  plant,  contains  the  largest  percentage  of 
sugar,  and  this  sugar  appears  to  be  really  a  waste  product. 

The  classification  of  Plastic  and  Waste  Products,  in  Vines' s 
late  Physiology*  cannot  be  accepted  as  final,  since  many  changes 
in  plant  chemistry  have  resulted  since  1882  —  the  date  of  his 
chemical  bibliography. 

It  may  be  generally  said  that  the  proteids  or  albuminoid  sub- 
stances are  formed  in  the  cell  from  a  simple  carbohydrate  and 
some  nitrogenous  body,  probably  an  amide. 

The  inorganic  acids  supply  sulphur  and  other  substances 
necessary  to  enter  into  combination  with  the  proteid,  or  act 
mechanically  by  removing  waste  material. 

1  H.  W.  Wiley,  Botanical  Gazette,  1887. 

2  Cambridge  edition,  1886. 


244        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  function  of  chlorophyll  may  be  briefly  stated : *  It  ab- 
sorbs certain  rays  of  light,  and  thus  enables  the  protoplasm  of 
the  cell  to  avail  itself  of  the  radiant  energy  of  the  sun's  rays  for 
the  construction  of  organic  substances  from  carbon-dioxide 
and  water. 

Plants  which  are  grown  in  the  dark,  or  at  low  temperature, 
are  usually  of  a  yellow  color.  Such  plants  are  said  to  be  etio- 
lated. There  is  reason  to  think  that  this  yellow  substance, 
etiolin,  is  an  intermediate  substance  in  the  formation  of  chlo- 
rophyll, for  if  it  is  exposed  to  light  it  is  converted  into  a  green 
color;  these  complex  coloring- matters  are  probably  derivatives 
of  protoplasm. 

The  autumnal  change  of  leaves  is  owing  to  a  third  coloring- 
matter,  called  xanthophyll;  in  many  cases,  the  leaves  also  con- 
tain a  red  coloring- matter,  erythrophyll. 

The  importance  of  chlorophyll  in  the  plant  will  be  admitted 
when  it  is  said  that  the  absorption  of  carbon-dioxide,  the  evo- 
lution of  oxygen,  and  the  formation  of  many  organic  substances 
are  effected  solely  by  chlorophyll  corpuscles. 

The  organic  acids  occur  in  plants  free  and  also  in  combina- 
tion with  bases.  It  is  to  the  presence  of  these  bodies  that  the 
acid  reaction  of  plant  tissues  is  due.  Some  organic  acids  are 
assimilated  by  plants ;  the  turgidity  of  cells  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
their  presence,  and  the  acid  sap  in  root  hairs  renders  possible 
the  solution  and  absorption  of  mineral  substances  insoluble  in 
water. 

The  primary  function  of  the  resins  2  of  Coniferae  and  analo- 
gous juices  of  other  plants  is  to  render  service  in  cases  of  injury, 
and,  by  covering  the  wound  with  a  protecting  coating,  to  favor 
its  healing. 

During  my  studies  on  the  Yucca,3  resins  and  saponin  were 
separated  from  each  part  of  the  plant.  Experiments  were  made 
to  determine  the  emulsive  power  of  saponin  on  resins.  It  was 
found  that  aqueous  solutions  of  saponin  were  able  to  emulsify 


1  Cambridge  edition,  p.  157. 

2  H.  De  Vries,  Chem.  Centr.  Bl.,  III,  xiii,  565  (Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1883,  p. 

)- 

3  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,  Dec.  1885.    See  ante,  p.  126. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT   FORMS      245 

many  classes  of  resins,  and  in  my  paper  it  was  pointed  out  that 
saponin  may  serve  mechanical  purposes  in  the  plant  as  well  as 
those  of  nutrition. 

The  succession  of  plants  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  forms 
will  be  reviewed  superficially,  and  chemical  compounds  noted 
where  they  appear. 

When  the  germinating  spores  of  the  fungi,  Myxomycetes, 
rupture  their  walls  and  become  masses  of  naked  protoplasm, 
they  are  known  as  plasmodia.  The  plasmodium  jEthalium 
septicum  occurs  in  moist  places,  on  heaps  of  tan  or  decaying 
barks.  It  is  a  soft,  gelatinous  mass  of  yellowish  color,  some- 
times measuring  several  inches  in  length. 

The  plasmodium  l  has  been  chemically  analyzed,  though 
not  in  a  state  of  absolute  purity.  The  table  of  Reinke  and  Ro- 
dewold  gives  an  idea  of  its  proximate  constitution. 

Many  of  the  constituents  given  are  always  present  in  the  liv- 
ing cells  of  higher  plants.  It  cannnot  be  too  emphatically  stated 
that  where  "biotic"  force  is  manifested,  these  colloidal  or 
albuminous  compounds  are  found. 

The  simplest  form  of  plant  life  is  an  undifTerentiated  indi- 
vidual, all  of  its  functions  being  performed  indifferently  by  all 
parts  of  its  protoplasm. 

The  chemical  basis  of  plasmodium  is  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  complex  albuminous  substances,  and  correlated  with 
this  structureless  body  are  other  compounds  derived  from  them. 
Aside  from  the  chemical  substances  which  are  always  present 
in  living  matter,  and  are  essential  properties  of  protoplasm,  we 
find  no  other  compounds.  In  the  higher  organisms,  where  these 
functions  are  not  performed  indifferently,  specialization  of  tis- 
sues is  accompanied  by  many  other  kinds  of  bodies. 

The  algae  are  a  stage  higher  in  the  evolutionary  scale  than 
the  undifferentiated  non- cellular  plasmodium.  The  simple  Alga 
protococcus  2  may  be  regarded  as  a  simple  cell.  All  higher  plants 
are  masses  of  cells,  varying  in  form,  function,  and  chemical  com- 
position. 

1  Studien  uber  das  Protoplasm,  1881. 

2  Vines,  p.  i.  Rostafinski,  Mem.  de  la  Soc.  des  Sc.  Nat.  de  Cherbourg,  1875. 
Strasburger,  Zeitschr.,  XII,  1878. 


246        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

A  typical  living  cell  may  be  described  as  composed  of  a  cell 
wall  and  contents.  The  cell  wall  is  a  firm,  elastic  membrane, 
closed  on  all  sides,  and  consists  mainly  of  cellulose,  water,  and 
inorganic  constituents.  The  contents  consist  of  a  semi-fluid 
colloidal  substance,  lying  in  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of 
the  membrane,  and  like  it,  closed  on  all  sides.  This  always  is 
composed  of  albuminous  substances.  In  the  higher  plants,  at 
least,  a  nucleus  occurs  embedded  in  it.  A  watery  liquid  holding 
salts  and  saccharine  substances  in  solution,  fills  the  space  called 
the  vacuole  enclosed  by  the  protoplasm. 

These  simple  plants  may  be  seen  as  actively  moving  cells  or 
as  non-motile  cells.  The  former  consist  of  a  minute  mass  of 
protoplasm,  granular  and  mostly  colored  green,  but  clear  and 
colorless  at  the  more  pointed  end,  and  where  it  is  prolonged  into 
two  delicate  filaments  called  cilia.  After  moving  actively  for  a 
time  they  come  to  rest,  acquire  a  spherical  form,  and  invest 
themselves  with  a  firm  membrane  of  cellulose.  This  firm,  outer 
membrane  of  the  Prolococcus  accompanies  a  higher  differenti- 
ation of  tissue  and  localization  of  function  than  is  found  in  the 
plasmodium. 

H&atococcus  and  plasmodium  come  under  the  classes  Algae 
and  Fungi  of  the  Thallophyta  group.  The  division  *  of  this 
group  into  two  classes  is  based  upon  the  presence  of  chlorophyll 
in  Algae  and  its  absence  in  Fungi.  Gelatinous  starch  is  found 
in  the  Algae;  the  Fungi  contain  a  starchy  substance  called 
glycogen,  which  also  occurs  in  the  liver  and  muscles  of  animals. 
Structureless  bodies,  as  athalium,  contain  no  true  sugar.  Strati- 
fied starch  2  first  appears  in  the  Phanerogams.  Alkaloids  have 
been  found  in  Fungi,  and  owe  their  presence  doubtless  to  the 
richness  of  these  plants  in  nitrogenous  bodies. 

In  addition  to  the  green  coloring- matter  in  Algae  are  found 
other  coloring- matters.3  The  nature  4  of  these  coloring- mat- 

1  Botany,  Prantl  and  Vines,  London,  1886,  p.  no. 

2  For  the  literature  of  starch,  see  p.  115,  Die  Pflanzenstoffe,  von  Hilger  and 
Husemann. 

3  Kiltzing,  Arch.  Pharm.  xli,  38.   Kraus  and  Millardet,  Bui.  Soc.  Sciences 
Nat.,  Strasbourg,  1868,  22.  Sorby,  Jour.  Lin.  Soc.  xv,  34.  J.  Reinke,  Jahrb. 
Wissenscht.  Botan.,  x,  B.  399.  Phipson,  Phar.  Jour.  Trans.,  clxii,  479. 

4  Prantl  and  Vines,  p.  in. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT  FORMS       247 

ters  is  usually  the  same  through  whole  families,  which  also  re- 
semble one  another  in  their  modes  of  reproduction. 

In  form,  the  Algae  differ  greatly  from  filaments  or  masses  of 
cells;  they  live  in  the  water  and  cover  damp  surfaces  of  rocks 
and  wood.  In  these  they  are  remarkable  for  their  ramifications 
and  colors  and  grow  to  a  gigantic  size. 

The  physiological  functions  of  Algae  and  Fungi  depend  upon 
their  chemical  differences. 

These  facts  have  been  offered,  simple  though  they  are,  as 
striking  examples  of  chemical  and  structural  opposition. 

The  Fungi  include  very  simple  organisms,  as  well  as  others 
of  tolerably  high  development,  of  most  varied  form,  from  the 
simple  bacillus  and  yeast  to  the  truffle,  lichens,  and  mushrooms. 

The  cell  membrane  of  this  class  contains  no  pure  cellulose, 
but  a  modification  called  fungus  cellulose.  The  membrane  also 
contains  an  amyloid  substance,  amylomycin.1  Many  of  the 
chemical  constituents  found  in  the  entire  class  are  given  in 
Die  Pflanzenstofje.2 

Under  the  SMzomycetes,  to  which  the  Micrococcus  and  Bacte- 
rium* belong,  are  found  minute  organisms  differing  much  in 
form  and  in  the  coloring  4  matters  they  produce,  as  that  caus- 
ing the  red  color  of  mouldy  bread. 

The  class  of  lichens  5  contains  a  number  of  different  color- 
ing substances,  whose  chemical  composition  has  been  exam- 
ined. These  substances  are  found  separately  in  individuals 
differing  in  form.  In  the  Polyporus  6  an  acid  has  been  found 
peculiar  to  it,  as  in  many  plants  special  compounds  are  found. 
In  the  Agaricaceae  the  different  kinds  of  vellum  distinguish  be- 
tween species,  and  the  color  of  the  conidia  is  also  of  differential 

1  L.  Crie,  Compt.  Rend.,  Ixxxviii,  759,  985.    J.  de  Seynes,  820,  1043. 

2  Page  279. 

3  M.  Nencki  and  F.  Schaffer.    N.  Sieher,  Jour.  Pract.  Chem.,  xxiii,  412. 

4  E.  Klein,  Quar.  Jour.  Micros.  Science,  1875,  381.  O.  Helm,  Arch.  Pharm., 
1875,  19-24.   G.  Gugini,  Gaz.  Chem.,  7,  4.  W.  Thorner,  Bui.  Ber.,  xi,  533. 

5  Handbook  of  Dyeing,  by  W.  Crookes,  London,  1874,  p.  367.     Schunck, 
Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.,  xli,  157;  liv,  261;  Ixi,  72;  Ixi,  64;  Ixi,  78.  Rochelder 
and  Heldt,  ibid.,  xlviii,  2;  xlviii,  9.  Stenhouse,  ibid.,  Ixviii,  57;  Ixviii,  72;  Ixviii, 
97,  104;  cxxv,  353.    See  also  researches  of  Strecker,    O.  Hesse,    Reymann, 
Liebermann,  Lamparter,  Knop  and  Schnedermann. 

8  Stahlschmidt. 


248        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

importance.  In  all  cases  of  distinct  characteristic  habits  of 
reproduction  and  form,  one  or  more  different  chemical  com- 
pounds is  found. 

In  the  next  group  of  the  Musiceae,  or  mosses,  is  an  absence  of 
some  chemical  compounds  that  were  characteristic  of  the  classes 
just  described.  Many  of  the  albuminous  substances  are  pre- 
sent. Starch  1  is  found,  often  in  large  quantities,  and  also  oily 
fats,  which  are  contained  in  the  oil  bodies  of  the  liverworts; 
wa!x,2  organic  acids,  including  aconitic  acid,  and  tannin,  which 
is  found  for  the  first  time  at  this  evolutionary  stage  of  the  plant 
kingdom. 

The  vascular  Cryptogams  are  especially  characterized  by 
their  mineral  composition.3  The  ash  is  extraordinarily  rich 
in  silicic  acid  and  alumina. 

Equisetum 4 silicic  acid 60  per  cent. 

Aspidium "        "     13  "  " 

Asplenium "        "     35  "  " 

Osmunda "        "     53  "  " 

Lycopodium5 "        "     14  "  " 

alumina 261027  "  " 

manganese 2102.5   "  " 

These  various  plants  contain  acids  and  compounds  peculiar 
to  themselves. 

As  we  ascend  in  the  plant  scale,  we  reach  the  Phanerogams. 
These  plants  are  characterized  by  the  production  of  true  seeds, 
and  many  chemical  compounds  not  found  in  lower  plants. 

It  will  be  convenient,  in  speaking  of  these  higher  groups, 
to  follow  M.  Heckel's  6  scheme  of  plant  evolution.  All  these 
plants  are  grouped  upder  three  main  divisions:  apetalous, 
monocotyledonous,  and  dicotyledonous,  and  these  main  di- 
visions are  further  subdivided. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  three  main  parallel  columns 
are  divided  into  three  general  horizontal  planes. 

1  E.  Treffner,  Inaugur.  Diss.  Dorpat,  1880.          2  W.  Pfeffer,  Flora,  1874. 

3  Die  Pftanzenstoffe,  p.  323.    W.  Lange,  Bui.  Bcr.,  xi,  822. 

4  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  xli,  62,  208;  Ann.  Chim.  Pharm.,  Ixxvii,  295. 

5  Fliickiger,  Pharmakognosie.    Kamp,  Ann.  Chim.  Pharm.,  c,  300. 

6  Revue  Scientifique,  March  13,  1886. 


* 

CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT   FORMS       249 

On  plane  i  are  all  plants  of  simplicity  of  floral  elements,  or 
parts;  for  example,  the  black  walnut  with  the  simple  flower 
contained  in  a  catkin. 

On  plane  2,  plants  which  have  a  multiplicity  of  floral  ele- 
ments, as  the  many  petals  and  stamens  of  the  rose ;  and  finally, 
the  higher  plants,  the  orchids  among  the  monocotyledons,  and 
the  Composite  among  the  dicotyledonous  plants,  come  under 
the  third  division  of  condensation  of  floral  elements. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  take  up  in  order  for  chemical  con- 
sideration all  these  groups,  and  I  shall  restrict  myself  to  point- 
ing out  the  occurrence  of  certain  constituents. 

I  desire  now  to  call  attention  to  chemical  groups  under  the 
apetalous  plants  having  simplicity  of  floral  elements. 

Cassuarina  equisetijolia  1  possibly  contains  tannin,  since  it 
is  used  for  curing  hides.  The  bark  contains  a  dye.  It  is  said  to 
resemble  Equisetum  2  in  appearance,  and  in  this  latter  plant 
a  yellow  dye  is  found. 

The  Myrica  3  contains  ethereal  oil,  wax,  resin,  balsam,  in 
all  parts  of  the  plant.  The  root  contains,  in  addition,  fats,  tan- 
nin and  starch,  also  myricinic  acid. 

In  the  willow  and  poplar,4  a  crystalline,  bitter  substance, 
salicin  or  populin,  is  found.  This  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  appearance  of  a  real  glucoside,  if  tannin  be  excluded  from 
the  list. 

The  oak,  walnut,  beech,  alder,  and  birch  contain  tannin 
in  large  quantities;  in  the  case  of  the  oak  ten  to  twelve  per 
cent.  Oak  galls  yield  as  much  as  seventy  per  cent.5 

The  numerous  genera  of  pine  and  fir  trees  are  remarkable 
for  ethereal  oil,  resin,  and  camphor. 

The  plane  6  trees  contain  caoutchouc  and  gum;  peppers,7 

1  Dictionary  of  Economic  Plants,  by  J.  Smith,  London,  1882,  p.  294. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  160.   Pharmakognosie  des  Pflanzenreichs,  Wittstein,  p.  736.  Ann. 
Chem.  Pharm.,  LXXVII,  295. 

3  Rabenhorst,  Repert.  Pharm.,  Ix,  214.      Moore,  Chem.  Centralbl.,  1862, 
779,  Dana. 

4  Johansen,  Arch.  Pharm.,  Ill,  ix,  210.    Ibid.,  Ill,  ix,  103.    Bente,  Berl. 
Ber.,  viii,  476.    Braconnot,  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  II,  xliv,  296. 

5  Wittstein,  Pharm.  des  Pflanzenreichs,  p.  249. 

6  John,  ibid.,  p.  651. 

7  Dulong,  Oersted,  Lucas,  Poutet,  ibid.,  p.  640. 


250       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

ethereal  oils,  alkaloids,  piperin,  white  resin,  and  malic  acid. 
Datisca  cannabina  l  contains  a  coloring- matter  and  another 
substance  peculiar  to  itself,  datiscin,  a  kind  of  starch,  or  allied 
to  the  glucosides. 

Upon  the  same  evolutionary  plane  among  the  monocotyle- 
dons, the  dates  and  palms  2  contain  in  large  quantities  spe- 
cial starches,  and  this  is  in  harmony  with  the  principles  of  the 
theory.  Alkaloids  and  glucosides  have  not  as  yet  been  dis- 
covered in  them. 

Other  monocotyledonous  groups  with  simplicity  of  floral 
elements,  such  as  the  Typhaceae,  contain  large  quantities  of 
starch;  in  the  case  of  Typha  latifolia,3  12.5  per  cent.,  and  1.5 
per  cent  gum.  In  the  pollen  of  this  same  plant,  2.08  per  cent 
starch  has  been  found. 

Under  the  dicotyledonous  groups  there  are  no  plants  with 
simplicity  of  floral  elements. 

Returning,  now,  to  apetalous  plants  of  multiplicity  and  sim- 
plification of  floral  elements,  we  find  that  the  Urticaceae  4  con- 
tain free  formic  acid;  the  hemp  5  contains  alkaloids;  the  hop,6 
ethereal  oil  and  resin;  the  rhubarb,7  crysophonic  acid;  and 
the  begonias,8  chicarin  and  lapacho  dyes.  The  highest  apetal- 
ous plants  contain  camphors  and  oils.  The  highest  of  the 
monocotyledons  contain  a  mucilage  and  oils;  and  the  highest 
dicotyledons  contain  oils  and  special  acids. 

The  trees  yielding  common  camphor  and  Borneol  are  from 
genera  of  the  Lauraceae  family;  also  sassafras  camphor  is  from 
the  same  family.  Small  quantities  of  Stereoptenes  are  widely 
distributed  through  the  plant  kingdom. 

The  Gramineae,  or  grasses,  are  especially  characterized  by 

1  Braconnot,  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  II,  iii,  277.  Stenhouse,  Ann.  Chim. 
Pharm.,  CXCVIII,  166. 

Pftanzenstoffe,  p.  412. 

Lecocq,  Braconnot,  Pharmacog.  Pftan.,  p.  693. 

Gorup-Besanez. 

Siebold  and  Brodbury,  Phar.  Jour.  Trans.,  Ill,  590,  1881,  326. 

Wagner,  Jour.  Prakt.  Chem.,  Iviii,  352.  E.  Peters,  v.  Gohren,  Jahresb. 
Agric.,  viii,  114;  ix,  105;  v,  58.  Am.  Jour.  Pharm,  IV,  49. 

Dragendorff,  Pharm.  Zeitschr.  Russ.,  xvii,  65-97. 

Boussingault,  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.  II,  xxvii,  315.  Erdmann,  Jour.  Pract. 
Chem.  Ixxi,  198. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT  FORMS      251 

the  large  quantities  of  sugar  and  silica  they  contain.  The  ash 
of  the  rice  hull,  for  example,  contains  ninety-eight  per  cent, 
silica. 

The  Ranunculaceae  contain  many  plants  which  yield  alka- 
loids, as  Hydrastis  canadensis,  Helleboms,  Delphinum,  Aco- 
nitum,  and  the  alkaloid  berberin  has  been  obtained  from 
genera  of  this  family. 

The  alkaloid  *  furnishing  families  belong,  with  few  excep- 
tions, to  the  dicotyledons.  The  Liliaceae,  from  which  is  ob- 
tained veratrine,  form  an  exception  among  the  monocotyle- 
dons. The  alkaloids  of  the  fungus  have  already  been  noted. 

2  Among  the  greater  number  of  plant  families,  no  alkaloids 
have  been  found.    In  the  Labiatae  none  has  been  discovered, 
nor  in  the  Composite  among  the  highest  plants. 

One  alkaloid  is  found  in  many  genera  of  the  Loganiaceae, 
in  genera  of  the  Berberidaceae,  Ranunculaceae,  Menisper- 
maceae,  Rutaceae,  Papaveraceae,  Anonaceae. 

Waxes  are  widely  distributed  in  plants.  They  occur  in  quan- 
tities in  some  closely  related  families. 

Ethereal  oils  occur  in  many  families,  in  the  bark,  root,  wood, 
leaf,  flower  and  fruit,  —  particularly  in  Myrtaceae,  Laurineae, 
Cyperaceae,  Cruciferae,  Aurantiaceae,  Labiatas,  and  Umbelli- 
ferae. 

Resins  are  found  in  most  of  the  higher  plants.  Tropical 
plants  are  richer  in  resins  than  those  of  cold  climates. 

Chemical  resemblance  between  groups,  as  indicating  mor- 
phological relations,  has  been  well  shown.  For  example :  the 
similarity  3  of  the  viscid  juices,  and  a  like  taste  and  smell 
among  Cactaceae  and  Portulaceae,  indicate  a  closer  relationship 
between  these  two  orders  than  botanical  classification  would 
perhaps  allow.  This  fact  was  corroborated  by  the  discovery 
of  irritable  stamens  in  Portulaca  and  Opuntia,  and  other  gen- 
era of  Cactaceae. 

Darwin4  states  that  in  the  Compositae  the  ray  florets  are  more 
poisonous  than  the  disc  florets  in  the  ratio  of  about  3  to  2. 

1  Die  Pftanzenstoffe,  p.  21.  2  Ibid. 

3  Meehan,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences. 

*  "  Different  Forms  of  Flowers  on  Plants  of  the  Same  Species,"  Introduction. 


252        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Comparing  the  Cycadeae  and  Palmae,  the  former  are  differ- 
ently placed  by  different  botanists,  but  the  general  resemblance 
is  remarkable,  and  they  both  yield  sago. 

Chemical  constituents  of  plants  are  found  in  varying  quan- 
tities during  stated  periods  of  the  year.  Certain  compounds 
present  at  one  stage  of  growth  are  absent  at  another.  Many 
facts  could  be  brought  forward  to  show  the  different  chemical 
composition  of  plants  in  different  stages  of  growth.  The  Thuja 
occidentalism  in  the  juvenescent  and  adult  form,  offers  an  ex- 
ample where  morphological  and  chemical  differences  go  hand 
in  hand.  Analyses  of  this  plant  under  both  conditions  show 
a  striking  difference. 

Different  parts  of  plants  may  contain  distinct  chemical  com- 
pounds, and  the  comparative  chemical  study  of  plant  orders 
comprises  the  analysis  of  all  parts  of  plants  of  different  species. 

For  example :  four  portions  of  the  Yucca  angustijolia  2  were 
examined  chemically — the  bark  and  wood  of  the  root  and  the 
base  and  blades  of  the  leaves.  Fixed  oils  were  separated  from 
each  part.  These  were  not  identical,  —  two  were  fluid  at  or- 
dinary temperature,  and  two  were  solid.  Their  melting  and 
solidifying  points  were  not  the  same. 

This  difference  in  the  physical  character  and  chemical  re- 
action of  these  fixed  oils  may  be  due  to  the  presence  of  free 
fatty  acid  and  glycerides  in  varying  proportions  in  the  four 
parts  of  the  plants.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that,  in  the  subter- 
ranean part  of  the  Yucca,  the  oil  extracted  from  the  bark  is 
solid  at  the  ordinary  temperature;  from  the  wood  it  was  of  a 
less  solid  consistency;  while  the  yellow  base  of  the  leaf  con- 
tained an  oil  quite  soft,  and  in  the  green  leaf  the  oil  is  almost 
fluid. 

Two  new  resins  were  extracted  from  the  yellow  and  green 
parts  of  the  leaf.  It  was  proposed  to  name  them  yuccal  and 
pyrophaal.  An  examination  of  the  contents  of  each  extract 
showed  a*  different  quantitative  and  qualitative  result. 

Saponin  was  found  in  all  parts  of  the  plant. 

Many  of  the  above  facts  have  been  collected  from  the  in- 

1  Meehan,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sciences. 

2  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  Trans.  Amer.  Philos.  Soc.,  1886.    See  p.  126. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF   PLANT  FORMS       253 

vestigations  of  others.  I  have  introduced  these  statements, 
selected  from  a  mass  of  material,  as  evidences  in  favor  of  the 
view  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  paper.1  My  own  study  has 
been  directed  towards  the  discovery  of  saponin  in  those  plants 
where  it  was  presumably  to  be  found.  The  practical  use  of  this 
theory  in  plant  analysis  will  lead  the  chemist  at  once  to  a  search 
for  those  compounds  which  morphology  shows  are  probably 
present. 

I  have  discovered  saponin  in  all  parts  of  the  Yucca  angusti- 
jolia,  in  the  Y '.  filimentosa,  and  Y.gloriosa]  in  several  species  of 
Agavae,  and  in  plants  belonging  to  the  Leguminosae  family. 

The  list 2  of  plants  in  which  saponin  has  been  discovered  is 
given  in  the  note.  All  these  plants  are  contained  in  the  middle 
plane  of  HeckePs  scheme.  No  plants  containing  saponin  have 
been  found  among  apetalous  groups.  No  plants  have  been 
found  containing  saponin  among  the  lower  monocotyledons. 

The  plane  of  saponin  passes  from  the  Liliaceae  and  allied 
groups  to  the  resales  and  higher  dicotyledons. 

Saponin  belongs  to  a  class  of  substances  called  glucosides. 
Under  the  action  of  dilute  acids,  it  is  split  up  into  two  sub- 
stances, glucose  and  sapogenin.  The  chemical  nature  of  this 
substance  is  not  thoroughly  understood.  The  commercial 3 
product  is  probably  a  mixture  of  several  substances. 

This  complexity  of  chemical  composition  of  saponin  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  and  it  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  corresponding  complexity  of  the  morphological 
elements  of  the  plant's  organs.  According  to  M.  Perrey,4  it 
seems  that  the  power  of  a  plant  to  direct  the  distribution  of  its 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  to  form  complex  glucosides  is 
indicative  of  its  higher  functions  and  developments. 

The  solvent  action  of  saponin  on  resins  has  been  already 

1  For  further  facts  confirming  this  theoiy,  see  "Comparative  Chemistry 
of  Higher  and  Lower  Plants,"    by  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  Amer.  Naturalist, 
August,  1887.   See  p.  257. 

2  Different  genera  and  species  of  the  following:  Ranunculaceae,  Berberi- 
daceae,  Carophyllaceae,  Polygalacea?,  Bromeliaceae,  Liliaceae,  Smilaceae,  Yuccas, 
Amaryllideae,  Leguminosae,  Primulaceae,  Rosaces?,  Sapindaceae,  Sapotaceae. 

3  Robert,  Chem.  Ztg. 

4  Compt.  Rend.,  xciv,  p.  1124. 


254       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

discussed.  Saponin  likewise  acts  as  a  solvent  upon  barium  l 
sulphate  and  calcium  2  oxalate,  and  as  a  solvent  of  insoluble 
or  slightly  soluble  salts  would  assist  the  plant  in  obtaining 
food  otherwise  difficult  of  access. 

Saponin  is  found  in  endogens  and  exogens.  The  line  di- 
viding these  two  groups  is  not  always  clearly  denned.  State- 
ments pointing  to  this  are  found  in  the  works  of  Heckel, 
Bentham,  and  others. 

Smilax  belongs  to  a  transition  class,  partaking  somewhat  of 
the  nature  of  endogen  and  of  exogen.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  this  intermediate  group  of  the  sarsaparillas  should  con- 
tain saponin. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  all  the  groups  above  named  con- 
taining saponin  belong  to  Heckel's  middle  division. 

It  may  be  suggested  that  saponin  is  thus  a  constructive  ele- 
ment in  developing  the  plant  from  the  multiplicity  of  floral 
elements  to  the  cephalization  of  those  organs. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  composite  occurs  where  the 
materials  for  growth  are  supplied  in  greatest  abundance,  and 
the  more  simple  forms  arise  where  sources  of  nutrition  are  re- 
mote. We  may  gather  from  this  fact  that  the  simpler  organs 
of  plants  low  in  the  evolutionary  scale  contain  simpler  non- 
nitrogenous  chemical  compounds  for  their  nutrition. 

The  presence  of  saponin  seems  essential  to  the  life  of  the 
plant  where  it  is  found,  and  it  is  an  indispensable  principle  in 
the  progression  of  certain  lines  of  plants,  passing  from  their 
lower  to  their  higher  stages. 

Saponin  is  invariably  absent  where  the  floral  elements  are 
simple;  it  is  invariably  absent  where  the  floral  elements  are 
condensed  to  their  greatest  extent.  Its  position  is  plainly  that 
of  a  factor  in  the  great  middle  realm  of  vegetable  life,  where 
the  elements  of  the  individual  are  striving  to  condense,  and  thus 
increase  their  physiological  action  and  the  economy  of  parts. 

It  may  be  suggested  as  a  line  of  research  to  study  what  are 
the  conditions  which  control  the  synthesis  and  gradual  forma- 

1  Bui.  de  la  Soc.  Chim. 

2  "Yucca  Angustifolia,"  Trans.  Am.  Philos.  Soc.,  December,  1885.      See 
p.  126. 


CHEMICAL   BASIS   OF  PLANT  FORMS      255 

tion  of  saponin  in  plants.  The  simpler  compounds  of  which 
this  complex  substance  is  built  up,  if  located  as  compounds  of 
lower  plants,  would  indicate  the  lines  of  progression  from  the 
lower  to  the  saponin  groups. 

In  my  paper.1  read  in  Buffalo  at  the  last  meeting  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  vari- 
ous suggestions  were  offered  why  chemical  compounds  should 
be  used  as  a  means  of  botanical  classification. 

The  botanical  classifications  based  upon  morphology  are 
so  frequently  unsatisfactory,  that  efforts  in  some  directions 
have  been  made  to  introduce  other  methods.2 

There  has  been  comparatively  little  study  of  the  chemical 
principles  of  plants  from  a  purely  botanical  view.  It  promises 
to  become  a  new  field  of  research. 

The  Leguminosae  are  conspicuous  as  furnishing  us  with  im- 
portant dyes,  e.  g.,  indigo,  logwood,  catechin.  The  former  is 
obtained  principally  from  different  species  of  the  genus  Indi- 
gofera,  and  logwood  from  the  H&matoxylon  and  Saraca  indica. 

The  discovery  3  of  haematoxylin  in  the  Saraca  indica  illus- 
trates very  well  how  this  plant,  in  its  chemical  as  well  as  bo- 
tanical character,  is  related  to  the  Hamatoxylon  campechianum; 
also,  I  found  a  substance  like  catechin  in  the  Saraca.  This 
compound  is  found  in  the  Acacias,  to  which  class  Saraca  is 
related  by  its  chemical  position  as  well  as  botanically.  Saponin 
is  found  in  both  of  these  plants  as  well  as  in  many  other  plants 
of  the  Leguminosae.  The  Leguminosae  come  under  the  mid- 
dle plane  or  multiplicity  of  floral  elements,  and  the  presence 
of  saponin  in  these  plants  was  to  be  expected. 

From  many  of  the  facts  above  stated,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
the  chemical  compounds  of  plants  do  not  occur  at  random. 
Each  stage  of  growth  and  development  has  its  own  particular 
chemistry. 

It  is  said  that  many  of  the  constituents  found  in  plants  are 
the  result  of  destructive  metabolism,  and  are  of  no  further  use 

1  Botanical  Gazette,  October,  1886.     See  ante,  p.  168. 

2  Borodin,  Pharm.  Jour.  Trans.,  xvi,  369.    Pax.   Firemy,  Ann.  Sci.  Nat., 
xiii. 

3  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  Proc.  Acad.Nat.  Sciences,  Nov.  30,  1886.    See  ante, 
p.  171. 


256        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC    CHEMISTRY 

in  the  plant's  economy.  This  subject  is  by  no  means  settled, 
and  even  should  we  be  forced  to  accept  that  ground,  it  is  a  sig- 
nificant fact  that  certain  cells,  tissues,  or  organs  peculiar  to  a 
plant  secrete  or  excrete  chemical  compounds  peculiar  to  them, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  one  family,  or  in  species  closely  al- 
lied to  it. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  chemical  compounds  are  there,  no  mat- 
ter why  or  whence  they  came.  They  will  serve  our  purposes 
of  study  and  classification. 

The  result  of  experiment  shows  that  the  presence  of  certain 
compounds  is  essential  to  the  vigor  and  development  of  all 
plants,  and  particular  compounds  to  the  development  of  cer- 
tain plants.  Plant  chemistry  and  morphology  are  related.  Fu- 
ture investigations  will  demonstrate  this  relation. 

In  general  terms,  we  may  say  that  amides  and  carbohy- 
drates are  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  proteids.  Organic 
acids  cause  a  turgescence  of  cells.  Glucosides  may  be  a  form 
of  reserve  food  material. 

Resins  and  waxes  may  serve  only  as  protection  to  the  surfaces 
of  plants ;  coloring- matters,  as  screens  to  shut  off  or  admit  cer- 
tain of  the  sun's  rays;  but  we  are  still  far  from  penetrating  the 
mystery  of  life. 

A  simple  plant  does  what  animals  more  highly  endowed  can- 
not do.  From  simplest  substances  they  manufacture  the  most 
complex.  We  owe  our  existence  to  plants,  as  they  do  theirs  to 
the  air  and  soil. 

The  elements  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  pass 
through  a  cycle  of  changes  from  simple  inorganic  substances  to 
the  complex  compounds  of  the  living  cell.  Upon  the  decomposi- 
tion of  these  bodies  the  elements  return  to  their  original  state. 
During  this  transition  those  properties  of  protoplasm  which 
were  mentioned  at  the  beginning,  in  turn,  follow  their  path. 
From  germination  to  death  this  course  appears  like  a  crescent, 
the  other  half  of  the  circle  closed  from  view.  Where  chemistry 
begins  and  ends  it  is  difficult  to  say. 


COMPARATIVE    CHEMISTRY    OF    HIGHER    AND 
LOWER   PLANTS1 

ON  coming  before  a  popular  audience  to  present  a  special 
subject  like  plant  chemistry,  I  do  so  in  hopes,  perhaps,  of  show- 
ing some  of  the  less  familiar  sides  of  plant  life.  The  chief 
idea  of  the  remarks  I  am  about  to  make  is  one  that  has  not 
occupied  to  any  great  extent  the  minds  of  botanists  and  chem- 
istSj  and  if  it  be  not  true,  at  least  no  other  hypothesis  has  been 
suggested  than  the  one  I  shall  indicate  to  account  for  the 
chemical  compounds  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

On  past  occasions  2 1  have  spoken  of  certain  chemical  com- 
pounds in  relation  to  plant  morphology  and  evolution.  The 
facts  then  advanced  tended  to  show  a  chemical  progression 
in  plants,  and  a  mutual  dependence  between  chemical  con- 
stituents and  change  of  vegetable  form,  and  in  the  following 
pages  I  shall  keep  this  idea  prominently  before  you. 

Certain  condensations  of  force  on  our  planet  are  known 
as  chemical  bodies.  By  usual  methods  they  cannot  be  split 
up  into  component  parts,  hence  are  denominated  elements. 
However,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  these  so-called 
elements  are  in  reality  themselves  compounds,  formed  in  the 
cosmic  laboratory  from  still  simpler  aggregations  of  matter. 

In  mineralogy  the  series  of  chemical  formations  are  doubt- 

1  Lecture  delivered  in  the  course  given  under  the  auspices  of  the  Philo- 
sophical, Anthropological,  and  Biological  Societies  in  the  United  States  Na- 
tional Museum,  Washington,  April  23,  1887.    Printed  in  the  American  Nat- 
uralist, August,   September,   1887;    also  in  pamphlet   form,   Philadelphia, 
1887. 

2  "  Certain  Chemical  Constituents  of  Plants  considered  in  Relation  to  their 
Morphology  and  Evolution."    Read  before  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  A.  A. 
A.  S.  at  Buffalo,  1886.    Abstract  published  in  the  Botanical  Gazette,  vol.  xi, 
October,  1886.    "  The  Chemical  Basis  of  Plant  Forms."     Lecture  delivered 
before  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  1887.   Franklin  Institute  Journal. 
See  ante,  p.  168. 


258        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC    CHEMISTRY 

less  the  result  of  evolution  from  the  more  simple  elements  to 
the  complex  structure  of  the  crystalline  rocks.1 

The  plant  kingdom  may  be  considered  as  a  third  and 
higher  stage;  it  contains  in  its  structure  combinations  of  the 
elements  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus, and  compounds  derived  from  the  mineral  world. 

The  essence  which  underlies  all  force  and  life  may  be  traced 
through  these  three  planes  as  a  law  of  progression,  little 
varying  in  its  general  course,  though  ever  giving  more  involved 
problems  for  solution,  according  to  the  increasing  complexity, 
from  elements  and  minerals  to  plants,  and  even  to  animals. 

The  line  separating  each  of  these  conditions  of  matter  is 
indistinct,  "the  individual  of  the  one  encroaches  upon  the 
dominion  of  the  other;  "  2  as  a  spiral  coil  is  of  a  single  thread, 
so  "  nature  in  all  her  manifestations  constitutes  a  unity,"  3 
and  the  rounds  of  the  spiral  present  each  stage  parallel,  but 
in  reality  a  continuation. 

Analogies  should  not  be  given  too  much  weight,  but  from 
numerous  facts  the  above  statements  seem  theoretically 
reasonable  and  may  be  provisionally  accepted.  The  possi- 
bility of  chemical  evolution  of  the  elements,  in  itself,  is  not 
only  one  of  the  most  absorbing  questions  of  the  moment  for 
investigation,  but  the  evolution  of  compounds  from  these 
elements  and  their  possible  influence  upon  the  external  forms 
of  plants  is  of  equal  interest. 

That  directive  force  which  controls  the  different  groupings 
of  atoms  in  a  molecule  under  the  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous 
forms  of  matter,  manifests  itself  in  still  more  complicated 
conditions  in  each  grade  of  the  chemical  compounds  of  living 
cells,  and  thus,  from  the  single  cell  to  the  highest  of  plants,  is 
ever  active. 

It  is  not  my  wish  to  claim  for  plant  chemistry  more  than 
the  facts  at  my  disposal  will  allow;  though  in  the  past,  —  and 
this  should  not  be  overlooked,  —  without  the  aid  of  the  imagi- 
nation to  penetrate  the  avenues  of  the  unknown,  many  of 

1  Mineral  Physiology  and  Physiography,  by  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  Boston,  1886. 

2  The  Chemical  Basis  of  Plant  Forms,  p.  232. 

3  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  p.  18. 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  259 

our  well-established  scientific  facts  would  still  be  buried  from 
sight. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  the  dead  plant  and  the  study  of 
the  chemical  changes  occurring  in  the  living  plant  are  among 
our  means  for  some  of  these  investigations;  and  much  of  all 
the  knowledge  derived  from  each  field  of  chemical  research 
may  be  utilized  in  aiding  to  unravel  the  mystery  of  these  changes 
in  the  vegetable  cell. 

In  the  mineral  kingdom  certain  elements  are  invariably 
associated  with  others,  as  nickel  with  cobalt;  and  in  plants 
not  only  do  we  find  two  or  more  compounds  invariably  present 
together,  —  i.  e.,  tannin  and  starch  in  the  tannin  groups,  lime 
and  saponin  in  the  pink  family  (CaryophyllacecB)^  resins  and 
saponin  in  all  of  the  saponin-containing  groups,  and  sugar 
and  silica  in  the  grasses  (Graminece),  —  but  also  in  certain 
plant  groups  we  notice  the  predominance  of  special  com- 
pounds, and  their  absence  in  other  groups.  The  grouping  of 
these  compounds  in  definite  association  must  bear  some  re- 
lation to  their  respective  sequence  and  formation,  and  cannot 
be  the  result  of  accident.  That  the  cinchona  plant  does  not 
manufacture  the  alkaloids  of  the  poppy,  but  each  its  own 
particular  series  of  compounds,  illustrates  this. 

I  have  said,  elsewhere,2  "The  chemical  compounds  of  plants 
do  not  occur  at  random.  Each  stage  of  growth  and  develop- 
ment has  its  own  particular  chemistry.  .  .  .  The  result  of 
experiment  shows  that  the  presence  of  certain  compounds  is 
essential  to  the  vigor  and  development  of  all  plants,  and  par- 
ticular compounds  to  the  development  of  certain  plants." 
It  may  be  inferred  that  "plant  chemistry  and  morphology 
are  related.  Future  investigation  will  ^demonstrate  this  re- 
lation." 

The  theory  of  evolution,  which  underlies  all  mineral  and 
organic  forms,  comprises  the  evolution  of  the  component  parts 
of  the  whole,  and  since  the  structural  bases  of  minerals  and 
plants  are  chemical  compounds,  their  evolution  must  neces- 

1  Die  Pflanzenstoffe,  by  Hilger  and  Husemann,  p.  542;   E.  v.  Wolff,  /.  pr 
Chem.,  li,  24;   lii,  86;   Wolff,  Aschenanalysen,  1881,  pp.  144,  145. 

2  "The  Chemical  Basis  of  Plant  Forms,"  p.  232,  ante. 


260        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

sarily  be  included  in  a  study  of  plant  life.  Whether  this  life 
reveals  itself  in  the  perfume  of  sweet  flowers,  or  in  the  mani- 
fold forms  of  vegetation,  from  the  simple  mass  of  plant- jelly 
to  the  majestic  forest- tree,  its  dependence  upon  matter  invokes 
the  most  eager  desire  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  its  various 
manifestations. 

When  matter,  through  chemical  change,  exhibits  properties 
of  absorption,  metabolism,  excretion,  reproduction,  contractil- 
ity, automatism,  and  irritability,  it  is  said  to  be  living.  In  this 
condition  it  is  called  protoplasm.  This  substance  is  very  com- 
plex and  of  undetermined  composition,  though  its  proximate 
constitution  is  known.1  It  is  always  present  where  life,  as  de- 
fined, is  found,  apparently  the  same  in  the  lower  as  in  the 
higher  plants. 

The  lowest  forms  of  plants,  plasmodia,  are  irregular-shaped 
masses  of  jelly,  undifferentiated  in  form,  function,  and  chemical 
composition.  This  living  jelly  is  described  "as  a  colloidal 
albuminoid  united  with  more  or  less  water."  2 

Plant  cells,  when  alive,  are  composed  of  a  semi-fluid  albumi- 
nous substance  very  like  plasmodia,  closed  on  all  sides,  with 
a  watery  liquid  holding  salts  and  saccharine  substances  in 
solution,  and  lying  in  contact  with  a  firm  elastic  membrane 
called  the  cell  wall ;  also,  like  it,  closed  on  all  sides,  and  con- 
sisting of  cellulose,  water,  and  inorganic  matter.  Some  of 
the  Algae  and  all  higher  plants  are  congregations  of  these 
cells  grouped  as  tissues  and  organs,  and  their  albuminoid 
contents  are  undergoing  continual  change;  in  life  it  is  a 
building-up  process,  the  food  being  supplied  from  the  gases, 
water,  and  inorganic  substances  of  the  surroundings,  and 
elaborated  in  the  plant's  own  laboratory  to  meet  its  needs. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  does  not  usually  claim  our  atten- 
tion for  its  intellectual  attainments,  although  its  members 
would  certainly  seem  to  possess  greater  chemical  skill  than 
a  higher  race  of  beings  exhibit  in  their  laboratories.  Some 
few  of  this  higher  race  are  "going  to  take  lessons"  how  to 

1  Reinke  and  Rodewald,  Berlin,  1881;    Physiological  Botany,  by  G.  L. 
Goodale,  1885,  p.  197. 

2  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  Min.  Phys.  and  Physiography. 


HIGHER  AND   LOWER   PLANTS  261 

construct  proteids  and  carbohydrates  as  we  are  told  our  now 
automatic  cousins  were  once  taught  to  do;  though  man  fails 
to  consider  that  it  may  be  a  lost  art,  and  the  secret  has  died 
with  the  plants  in  a  "  catagenetic "  decline. 

All  plants  and  their  products  are  composed  of  two  general 
classes  of  compounds,  —  volatile  and  fixed.  The  former,  on 
incineration  of  the  plant,  are  transformed  into  gases,  leaving 
the  last  as  so-called  ash-constituents. 

I  will  very  briefly  refer  to  the  sources  of  the  substances 
which  go  to  the  building  of  the  plant  structure.  Green  plants 
derive  their  carbon  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  even  from  complex  organic  compounds,  since  Darwin  1 
has  shown  that  insectivorous  plants,  by  means  of  their  modified 
leaves,  are  able  to  absorb  flies  and  other  small  insects. 

Plants  that  do  not  contain  chlorophyll,  as  fungi,  take 
their  carbon  from  complex  compounds  of  decaying  organic 
matter.  Not  only  do  all  the  so-called  organic  compounds  of 
plants  contain  carbon,  but  it  is  found  also  in  the  form  of  car- 
bonates.2 

Hydrogen  is  absorbed  by  all  plants  in  the  form  of  water, 
or  ammonia  and  its  compounds,  or  in  complex  substances, 
as  mentioned  above.  Oxygen  is  taken  up  by  plants  free  or  in 
combination,  in  water  or  in  salts,  and  there  are  six  possible 
sources  of  nitrogen  supply;  but  I  will  not  delay  by  going  into 
this  subject.8 

Sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  constituents  of  proteids,  and 
are  derived  from  inorganic  compounds.  In  addition  to  these 
the  elements  essential  to  the  nutrition  and  maintenance  of 
the  life  of  all  plants  are  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron 
in  the  case  of  green  plants,  its  absence  producing  the  con- 
dition of  etiolation;  and,  in  certain  cases,  chlorine.  Silicon, 
fluorine,  manganese,  sodium,  lithium,  rubidium,  caesium, 
barium,  strontium,  aluminium,  zinc,  copper,  arsenic,  titanium, 
iodine,  and  bromine  have  also  been  found  among  the  ash- 
ingredients  of  certain  plants. 

1  Insectivorous  Plants.  2  Ann.  Phys.  et  Chim.,  Berthelot. 

3  "  The  Economical  Aspect  of  Agr.  Chem.,"  by  H.  W.  Wiley,  Proc.  A.  A. 
A.  S.,  vol.  xxxv,  1886. 


262        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

These  ash-ingredients  are  usually  present  in  each  p>lant 
cell,  in  the  cell  wall,  imbedded  in  the  cellulose  and  partly  in  the 
contents  of  the  cell.  The  salts  of  the  alkaline  metals,  sul- 
phates, chlorides  of  magnesium  and  calcium,  also  soluble 
silicic  acid,  as  in  Equiselum  hiemale,1  occur  in  solution  in 
the  cell-sap,  and  insoluble  salts  exist  in  the  tissues  of  plants. 

The  differences  in  the  composition  of  the  ash  of  plants  show 
that  each  plant  is  endowed  with  a  specific  absorbent  capacity; 
thus  a  gramineous  plant 2  is  able  to  withdraw  relatively  larger 
quantities  of  silica  from  the  soil  than  a  leguminous  plant. 
The  latter  can  only  do  so  to  a  very  slight  extent. 

The  absorbent  capacities  of  allied  species  are  very  different. 
Again,  individuals  of  the  same  species  yield  different  ash-con- 
stituents, depending  upon  their  vigor,  and  at  different  periods 
of  growth  the  ash-composition  varies.  In  a  summary  of  experi- 
mental results  it  has  been  stated  that 3  "  similar  kinds  of  plants, 
and  especially  the  same  parts  of  similar  plants,  exhibit  a 
close  general  agreement  in  the  composition  of  their  ashes, 
while  plants  which  are  unlike  in  their  botanical  characters 
are  also  unlike  in  the  proportions  of  their  fixed  ingredients." 

Certain  marked  varieties  of  plants  appear  to  be  peculiar 
to  and  developed  by  certain  soils,  as  the  violet,  var.  calami- 
naris,  and  the  penny  cress,  in  zinc  soils.4  In  the  leaves  of  the 
latter  plant  thirteen  per  cent,  of  zinc  oxide  was  found,  and  I 
have  found  manganese  in  the  different  portions  of  Yucca 
angustijolia  5  grown  near  Lake  Valley,  New  Mexico. 

Plants  may  absorb  from  the  soil  mineral  matters  independ- 
ently of  their  use  or  harmfulness  to  the  plant,  but  the  ab- 
sorption of  essential  inorganic  constituents  will  depend  upon 
their  relation  to  the  changes  in  the  vegetable  cell. 

The  ash-constituents  of  a  plant  increase  from  the  roots 
upward  to  the  leaves,  the  largest  percentage  being  found  in 
the  younger  portions  of  the  growing  plant,  and  I  have  ob- 
served this  same  principle  on  a  more  general  scale  running 

Lange,  Ber.  d.  Deut.  Chem.  Ges.,  xi. 

Wolff,  Aschenanalysen,  1871. 

How  Crops  Grow,  by  S.  W.  Johnson,  London,  p.  145. 

A.  Braum  and  Risse,  Sachs,  Exp.  Physiologic,  p.  153. 

Amer.  Phil.  Soc.  Trans.,  H.  C.  De  S.  Abbott.   See  ante,  p.  126. 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  263 

through  the  entire  plant  kingdom,  for  the  largest  ash-percent- 
ages are  found  among  those  plants  lower  in  the  evolutionary 
scale,  which  would  correspond  to  the  larger  ash-percentage 
of  younger,  or  formative,  parts  of  the  growing  plants.  Some 
of  these  lower  groups,  as  the  diatoms  of  the  Algae  and  the  vas- 
cular cryptogams,1  contain  enormously  large  ash-percentages; 
in  the  Horse-Tail,  Equisetum,2  60  per  cent,  alone  of  silicic 
acid.  The  Lycopodium,3  in  addition  to  14  per  cent,  of  silicic 
acid,  contains  27  per  cent,  of  alumina  and  2.5  per  cent,  of 
manganese.  Among  comparatively  lower  plants  the  willow 
and  poplar  4  are  rich  in  ash-constituents;  the  former  5  con- 
tains 1.53  per  cent,  of  manganese.  Members  of  the  sedge  order 
and  grasses  contain  large  quantities  of  silica;  the  rice-hull,  98 
per  cent.  Various  species  of  apetalous  plants  on  the  same 
evolutionary  plane  with  these  groups  also  contain  a  large 
percentage  of  ash-constituents,  as  the  Salicornia,  Salsola, 
Cheno podium,  and  A  triplex,  also  the  sugar  beet. 

I  have  stated  what  chemical  elements  are  essential  for  the 
life  of  the  lower  as  well  as  the  higher  plants;  also  those 
which  may  occur  in  certain  plants;  and  I  have  spoken  of  the 
two  general  classes  of  compounds  of  which  plants  are  built 
as  the  volatile  and  ash  constituents.  The  four  elements,  car- 
bon, hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  first  class  of  compounds,  and  the  grouping  of  these 
elements  with  each  other  and  with  the  ash-elements,  constitutes 
what  is  called  plant  chemistry. 

As  certain  chemical  elements  are  always  present  in  plants, 
so  certain  changes  occur,  and  compounds  are  found  gener- 
ally, more  especially  among  the  albuminous  constituents. 
However,  even  this  statement  should  be  restricted  to  saying 
that  the  first  chemical  reactions  between  these  elements  are 
probably  identical  at  the  start,  the  subsequent  compounds 
formed  depending  upon  the  evolutionary  stage. 

The  infinite  variety  of  these  compounds  is  only  equalled  by 

1  Die  Pflanzensenstoffe,  p.  323;   W.  Lange,  Bil.  Ver.,  xi.  822. 

2  Ann.  Chim.  Phys.,  xi,  62,  208;   Ann.  Chim.  Pharm.,  77,  295. 

3  Fliickiger,  Pharmacognosie;  Kamp,    Ann.  Chim.  Pharm.,  100,  300. 

4  Durocher  and  Lalaguti,  Liebig's  Agric.  Chemie,  8.  Aufl.,  371. 

5  E.  Riechardt,  Chem.  pharm.  Centralbl.,  268,  567. 


264        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

the  numerous  genera  and  species  of  the  vegetable  kingdom; 
though  certain  compounds  frequently  occur,  as  starch,  sugar, 
tannin,  and  other  bodies,  correlated  in  special  groups  of  plants 
with  special  and  distinct  properties.  For  example,  the  true 
starch  of  the  cryptogams  will  be  found  gelatinous  in  Algae, 
replaced  in  Fungi  as  glycogen,  and  only  in  the  lowest  of  the 
flowering  plants  does  it  occur  in  the  simplest  stratified  form; 
from  this  stage  to  the  highest  of  plants,  the  Composite,  in 
which  it  occurs  as  a  crystalline  substance  called  inulin,  it  may 
be  traced  from  plane  to  plane  of  plant-group  development  in 
a  succession  of  stratification  until  it  reaches  its  highest  point 
in  our  most  evolved  plants.  So  strongly  marked  are  these 
varieties  of  starch-forms  that  some  investigators,  notably 
Nageli,  have  proposed  this  means  for  the  identification  of 
many  plant  families. 

The  many  kinds  of  vegetable  sugars  known  to  chemists  also 
have  their  locations,  not  only  during  different  stages  of  the 
individual  plant-growth  and  in  different  parts  of  the  plant, 
as  synanthrose,1  the  especial  sugar  of  the  unripe  grain  of  rye 
and  wheat,  but  also  in  certain  families,  some  one  kind  of  sugar 
will  predominate  in  many  of  the  individuals.  The  tannins  of 
the  oak,  beech,  and  poplar  are  not  those  of  the  higher  plants. 

At  a  certain  stage  of  plant  evolution,  glucosides,  substances 
capable  of  splitting  up  and  yielding,  among  other  products, 
sugar,  appear.  I  have  observed  in  those  plants  where  large 
percentages  of  such  substances  are  found,  a  diminished  pro- 
portion of  starch  and  sugar,2  or  their  absence,  notably  in  soap- 
bark  and  species  of  the  Yucca. 

The  waxes,  oils,  camphors,  resins,  acids,  and  other  classes 
of  vegetable  compounds  might  be  similarly  cited  as  offering 
characteristic  properties  in  various  plants  in  which  they  appear, 
but  the  examples  given  are  ample  to  illustrate  my  point,  that 
the  chemical  compounds  of  plants  should  be  considered  from 
three  sides,  viz. :  — 

i.  In  their  own  development  through  many  plant  groups, 

1  "  Ripening  of  Seeds,"  by  A.  Muntz,  Ann.  Agronom.,  xii,  399-400;  Jour. 
Chem.  Soc.,  February,  1887,  p.  173. 

2  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  "Yucca  Angustifolia."     See  ante,  p.  126. 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  265 

from  a  gelatinous  or  undifTerentiated  compound  to  a  polymer, 
or  a  substance  of  the  same  chemical  formula,  having  a  solid 
or  crystalline  form. 

2.  In  their  succession  of  changes,  which  may  be  observed 
during  the  different  stages  of  the  individual  plant's  growth, 
and  the  relation  of  these  chemical  changes  to  other  com- 
pounds present  in  the  plant. 

3.  The  location  as  predominant  of  some  one  or  associated 
compounds  only  in  certain  plants  on  similar  evolutionary 
planes. 

These  three  conditions  correspond  to  what  was  stated  at 
the  beginning,  that  a  law  of  universal  progression  may  be 
traced  wherever  matter  or  force  exists. 

There  is  no  absolutely  certain  knowledge  of  the  precise 
character  of  the  chemical  changes  which  these  plant  compounds 
undergo,  though  we  have  some  information  about  them.  In- 
vestigations are  being  vigorously  pushed  in  this  department 
of  plant  life,  and  it  may  be  reasonably  inferred  that  definite 
facts  will  be  obtained  on  many  of  these  subjects. 

It  would  seem  from  the  latest  researches  that  the  albumi- 
nous or  proteid  compounds  to  which  life  is  essentially  linked 
are  formed  from  a  compound  containing  nitrogen,  called  an 
amide,  and  some  carbohydrate;  its  sulphur  and  phosphorus 
supply  being  derived  from  inorganic  sources.  This  amide  is 
probably  asparagine  or  a  related  body.  Various  suggestions 
have  been  offered  to  explain  its  formation  in  the  plant,  from 
the  breaking  down  of  protoplasm  to  its  construction  from 
simple  nitrogenous  and  carbon  compounds,  and  among  the 
latest  investigations  1  the  results  show  that  the  formation  of 
asparagine  is  independent  of  carbohydrates,  and  that  the 
amide  formed  is  not  a  by-product  of  the  interchange  of  mat- 
ter within  the  plant.  The  author  of  these  experiments  con- 
siders that  asparagine  is  formed  by  the  union  of  inorganic 
nitrogen  compounds  and  malic  acid  within  the  plant,  the  acid 
being  derived  from  the  carbohydrates. 

Other  nitrogenous  compounds,  as  the  alkaloids,  for  example, 

1  O.  Miiller,  "Landw.  Versuch.  Stat.,"  1886,  326-335;  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  p. 
70,  January,  1887. 


266        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

are  probably  formed  from  the  complex  albuminoids,  and  in 
fungus  plants,  which  are  especially  rich  in  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds, alkaloids  are  common. 

It  has  been  generally  held  that  alkaloids,  with  resins  and 
some  other  compounds  occurring  in  plants,  are  waste  products, 
but  this  cannot  be  accepted  as  final.  The  researches  l  of  Selmi, 
Gautier,  Etard,  Brieger,  and  others  have  broken  down  an 
imaginary  distinction  between  plants  and  animals,  which  is  of 
interest  in  this  connection.  They  show  that  the  production  of 
alkaloids  is  a  general  function  common  to  all  living  cells, 
whether  they  be  bacteria  or  the  cells  of  living  animals. 

In  the  animals,  with  their  excretory  functions,  these  poisonous 
substances  would  be  readily  eliminated  from  the  system;  but  it 
seems  to  me  that  in  the  absence  of  homologous  organs  in  plants 
these  compounds  might  be  used  again  for  the  building  up  of 
tissue  and  prevent  the  accumulation  of  products  detrimental  to 
plants,  and  the  recent  investigations  of  Kellner  2  on  the  com- 
position of  tea-leaves  show  that  this  view  is  not  unlikely,  for  he 
states  that  the  non- albuminoid  nitrogen  is  almost  wholly  absent 
during  the  latter  stages  of  growth,  being  found  as  theine;  in  the 
seeds  the  albumen  has  increased,  but  no  theine  is  found;  thus 
the  author  believes  that  positive  proof  is  afforded  that  the  alka- 
loids are  a  decomposition  product  of  albumen,  and  capable  of 
again  forming  albumen-like  asparagine  and  glutamine. 

It  will  not  be  possible  in  this  place  to  enter  more  fully  into 
the  details  of  the  chemical  changes  going  on  within  the  plant. 
My  time  will  not  allow  a  discussion  of  the  changes  of  starch 
into  sugar,  and  conversely,  nor  a  review  of  the  many  steps  in 
the  transformation  of  protoplasm  into  the  simpler  products  of 
cellulose,  chlorophyll,  and  other  substances;  and  it  may  be 
well  to  say  that  the  ideas  of  physiologists  in  regard  to  these 
changes  are  unstable,  since  the  acquisition  of  new  facts  seems 
to  unsettle  former  opinions.  But,  to  illustrate  the  revolution 
within  the  last  few  years  from  former  views  held  in  plant 

1  "Les  Alcaloides  d'Origine  Animale,"  par    Dr.  L.  Huhouneng,  Paris. 
Chem.  News,  December  10,  1886. 

2  "  Landw.  Versuch.  Stat.,"  1886,  370,  380;  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  January, 
1887,  p.  73. 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  267 

chemistry,  I  will  mention  that  sugar  is  not,  in  all  plants,  a 
reserve  or  plastic  body,  and  in  some  few  (for  example,  the 
sorghum  cane  *)  it  must  be  regarded  rather  as  a  waste  pro- 
duct, and  its  advent  in  larger  percentage  after  the  maturity  of 
growth  marks  the  decay  of  the  plant  and  attends  its  euthanasia. 

I  have  desired,  by  entering  into  all  of  the  above  particulars, 
to  prepare  for  a  consideration  of  the  compounds  which  are 
formed  by  these  chemical  successions  and  occur  through  the 
plant  kingdom.  In  treating  of  this  subject  I  shall  have  so  fre- 
quent occasion  to  speak  of  the  different  plant  families  that,  for 
convenience,  I  shall  use  the  order  of  evolution  for  flowering 
plants^  proposed  by  M.  fidouard  Heckel,2  and  which  is  repre- 
sented in  the  table. 

The  author  classes  all  these  plants  under  three  main  parallel 
divisions,  from  the  lowest  of  the  apetalous,3  mono-  and  di-coty- 
ledonous  groups  to  their  respective  highest  plants.  These  three 
main  columns  are  divided  at  the  same  point  into  three  general 
planes.  On  plane  i  are  all  plants  of  simplicity  of  floral  elements 
or  parts;  for  example,  the  black  walnut  with  the  simple  flower 
contained  in  a  catkin.  On  plane  2  are  plants  of  multiplicity  of 
floral  elements,  as  the  many  petals  and  stamens  of  the  rose; 
and,  finally,  the  higher  plants,  as  the  orchids  among  the  mo- 
nocotyledons, and  the  Composite  among  the  dicotyledonous 
plants,  come  upon  the  third  plane,  or  the  division  of  conden- 
sation of  floral  parts. 

These  three  characteristics,  simplicity,  multiplicity,  and  con- 
densation of  floral  elements,  are  correspondingly  repeated  in 


"  On  the  Variations  of  Sucrose  in  Sorghum  Saccharatum,"  by  H.  W.  Wiley, 
Botanical  Gazette,  vol.  xii,  March,  1887. 

2  Revue  Scientifique,  March  13,  1886. 

3  Heckel's  division  of  apetalous  plants  from  mono-  and  di-cotyledonous 
groups  has  been  criticised  by  some  botanists  as  an  artificial  method  of  classi- 
fication.   Since  all  botanical  classifications  have  been  declared,  on  botanical 
authority,  in  a  measure  artificial,  the  author  does  not  feel  called  upon  to 
apologize  for  introducing  M.  Heckel.    She  has  found  his  scheme  to  answer 
her  purposes,  provisionally,  more  fully  than  other  classifications,  and  she  is 
indebted  to  him  for  a  means  of  presenting  her  subject  which  would  be  other- 
wise impracticable.    Further  than  this  she  is  not  responsible  for  advocating 
the  classification.  M.  Heckel's  table  is  published  with  his  paper,  "Les  Plantes 
et  la  Theorie  de  FE volution,"  in  the  Revue  Scientifique,  March  13,  1886. 


268       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


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HIGHER  AND  LOWER   PLANTS  269 

each  of  the  three  horizontal  planes,  and  even  in  individual  orders, 
in  their  lowest  and  highest  plants.1  To  facilitate  the  compre- 
hension of  this  classification  I  have  assembled  a  sufficient 
number  of  the  plants  themselves,  so  arranged  as  to  place  be- 
fore you  a  living  representation  of  this  complicated  diagram. 

The  laws  controlling  the  chemical  evolution  of  plant -con- 
stituents are  too  little  comprehended  to  formulate,  but  before 
reaching  a  position  ever  to  do  this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  study 
carefully  the  facts  from  extended  researches,  to  ascertain  how 
these  chemical  constituents  occur,  under  what  conditions,  and 
if  these  conditions  are  constant  or  variable,  and  to  what  may 
be  ascribed  the  variability. 

In  speaking  of  chemical  compounds  I  will  describe  them  as 
occurring  according  to  the  botanical  disposition  of  Heckel's 
table,  which  I  use  provisionally,  since  it  is  not  probable  that 
this  presentation  will  be  the  ultimate  or  best  way  to  introduce 
the  subject.  But  I  am  not  prepared  as  yet  to  offer  any  other 
arrangement  on  a  purely  chemical  basis;  since  the  application 
of  the  chemical  side  of  plant  life  as  one  more  evidence  in  favor 
of  the  hypothesis  of  evolution  is  still  too  new  to  possess  a  litera- 
ture of  its  own. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  protoplasm  and  starch,  also  to 
the  large  ash-percentages  of  some  of  the  lower  groups,  and 
among  the  compounds  commonly  found  in  many  plants,  tannin 
appears  first,  according  to  the  evolutionary  order,  in  liverworts. 

Chlorophyll  is  one  of  the  earliest  compounds  to  appear,  and 
its  presence  in  Algae  and  its  absence  in  Fungi  is  a  distinction 
between  the  two  divisions  of  the  Thallophyta  group.  Besides 
this  green  coloring-matter,  which  is,  with  few  exceptions,  com- 
mon to  all  plants,  other  brilliant  coloring-matters  occur  in  some 
of  these  lower  plant  forms  which  are  peculiar  to  whole  fami- 
lies and  correlated  with  special  physiological  functions. 

The  general  distribution  of  chlorophyll,  with  few  exceptions, 
in  all  plant  groups  is  only  second  to  the  proteid  compounds; 
however,  the  color  of  this  compound  is  not  the  same  tint  in  all 
plants,  and  the  evergreens  and  many  other  plants  when  com- 

1  Plate  I  illustrates  this  principle  for  the  three  horizontal  planes,  which  is 
also  applicable  to  the  orders. 


270        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

pared  will  be  found  in  this  respect  distinct.  The  gradual  change 
from  the  bright  greens  of  the  early  spring  foliage  to  the  duller 
greens  of  late  summer  illustrates  the  transmutation  of  color 
which  may  be  observed  in  plants,  and  I  would  suggest  that  this 
same  gradation  may  be  seen  on  the  large  evolutionary  planes 
of  all  plant  groups,  chlorophyll,  like  the  plants,  being  at  differ- 
ent evolutionary  stages;  for  example,  in  many  Algae  and  lower 
plants  it  appears  as  light  bright  greens,  and  finally  in  the  darker 
greens  of  the  higher  plants. 

Considering  in  general  the  chemical  compounds  of  flower- 
ing plants  among  the  apetals  and  monocotyledons  on  the  first 
evolutionary  plane,  where  the  plant  elements  are  simple,  tan- 
nin, wax,  starch,  aromatic  or  acrid  principles,  and  the  oils  and 
sugar  of  the  palm  are  the  most  conspicuous  substances.  These 
compounds  are  found  in  the  same  or  in  neighboring  plants, 
and  their  association  is  doubtless  of  evolutionary  significance. 
Glucosides  or  alkaloids,  though  occurring  in  some  few  of  these 
plants,  are  not  characteristic  of  this  stage  of  evolution. 

Tannin  is  a  general  name  for  a  class  of  substances  which 
presents  many  aspects  in  different  plants.  It  first  appears,  as 
was  stated,  in  the  liverworts,  combined  with  large  quantities 
of  starch  and  wax;  then  in  ferns.  Among  the  amental  apetal- 
ous  groups  it  is  one  of  the  conspicuous  compounds,  also  asso- 
ciated with  starch;  the  casuarina,  willow,  poplar,  hazel,  oak, 
beech,  chestnut,  alder,  and  birch  containing  large  quantities. 
Tannin  is  widely  distributed,  though  especially  in  the  leaves, 
barks,1  seeds,  and  rinds  of  fruits,  and  in  other  plants  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  as  the  maple,  sumach,  tea,  in  many  ber- 
ries, the  holly,  and  the  seeds  and  stalks  of  the  grape-vine. 

Tormentilla  erecta,2  Rosaceae,  yields  from  six  to  twenty  per 
cent,  tannin,  and,  although  this  compound  is  present  in  mono- 
and  di-cotyledonous  plants,  it  seems  to  be  more  prominent  in 
the  apetalous  on  the  first  evolutionary  plane,  and  to  occur  less, 
if  at  all,  in  the  highest  plants.  When  it  is  remembered  that 
tannin  is  found  in  greater  abundance  in  lower  plants,  which  I 

1  "Repartition  du  Tannin  dans  les  Diverses  Regions  du  Bois  de  Chene," 
Ann.  de  la  Science  Agr. 

2  Fraas,  Ergebnisse,  Landw.  Versuche,  Miinchen,  1861. 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  271 

have  compared  as  formative  to  the  formed  or  higher  evolution- 
ary groups,  it  is  a  still  further  illustration  of  what  was  stated 
about  the  higher  percentage  of  ash- constituents  in  lower  plants. 

Physiologists  differ  as  to  the  tannin  functions  in  plants.  It 
probably  serves  several  purposes;  according  to  Schell,  as  a 
plastic  material  for  the  building  up  of  tissues,  especially  where 
starch  or  fats  are  absent;  or  it  exists  as  a  subordinate  product. 
It  is  certainly  true  that  some  tannins  play  a  distinct  role  as  the 
source  of  many  vegetable  colors, — the  reds  and  blues  of  flowers, 
the  brown  of  tree- barks,  and  the  colors  of  changing  leaves  owing 
their  origin  to  this  source. 

The  large  quantity  of  starch  in  most  tannin  plants  is  remark- 
able; and  Sachs  believes  it,  or  a  fixed  oil,  to  be  the  mother-sub- 
stance of  tannin. 

Datiscin,1  a  kind  of  starch,  is  found  in  the  Datisca  order, 
and,  among  the  monocotyledons,  the  palms  occur  on  the  same 
plane,  and  in  most  of  their  genera  contain  large  quantities  of 
starch,  eight  hundred  pounds  of  sago  having  been  obtained  from 
one  plant  of  Metroxylon,  or  the  sago-palm  species.  The  Arum 
pandanus  (screw-pine)  and  bulrush  orders  yield  much  starch; 
of  the  latter  plants,  12.5  per  cent  from  Typha  lalifolia  (Lecoq). 

Large  quantities  of  wax  are  found  in  species  of  the  myrtle, 
and  also  of  the  palm. 

On  the  second  plane,  or  multiplicity  of  floral  parts,  the  chem- 
ical constituents  become  much  more  numerous  at  this  stage. 
Under  the  apetalous  and  monocotyledonous  groups,  volatile, 
pungent,  and  aromatic  principles,  alkaloids,  sugars,  coloring- 
matters,  camphors,  resins,  starch,  and  glucosides  appear  promi- 
nently. The  lower  dicotyledonous  plants  reproduce  many  of 
the  compounds  of  the  other  two  classes,  for  the  Rosaceae  con- 
tain the  tannins  of  the  lower  apetalous  plants  and  parallel 
groups,  and  the  glucosides  of  the  higher  monocotyledons. 

Cane  sugar  is  a  prominent  compound  here.  If  a  horizontal 
line  be  drawn  from  a  given  point  of  Heckel's  scheme  it  passes 
through  the  apetalous,  mono-  and  di-cotyledonous  groups,  which 
contain  this  substance  most  abundantly,  —  namely,  the  sugar 

1  According  to  Stenhouse,  datiscin  is  a  crystalline  glucosidal  bitter  sub- 
stance. 


272        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

beet,  sugar-cane,  sorghum,  the  fruit  groups  of  the  Rosaceae,1 
and  the  sugar  maple. 

The  sugar  of  the  palms,  among  the  highest  of  plants  with 
simplicity  of  floral  elements,  is  very  like  that  of  the  cane.  Since 
the  grasses  are  the  lower  of  monocotyledons  with  multiplicity 
of  parts,  it  is  notable  that  at  the  meeting-ground  between  these 
groups,  or  at  the  transition-stage  into  multiplicity,  sugar  should 
occur.  The  sugar  of  the  palm  is  very  little  above  the  sugar  line; 
it  may  be  considered,  in  an  evolutionary  sense,  as  passing  to  the 
cane  sugar  of  these  other  groups,  and  as  forming  the  apex  of  a 
low  triangle,  the  base  being  the  sugar  line  already  described. 
The  large  percentage  of  grape-sugar  in  the  fig,  Ficus  carica, 
occurs  in  a  class  very  nearly  on  a  line  with  these  cane-sugar 
plants. 

Glucosides  are  more  especially  the  compounds  of  the  middle 
plane  of  plant  development,  and  are  found  in  the  higher  mono- 
cotyledons of  this  stage,  in  the  lower  and  some  of  the  higher 
dicotyledons,  and  less  frequently  in  the  highest  of  all  plants,  or 
under  cephalization.  The  first  appearance  of  a  glucoside  occurs 
in  the  apetalous  groups  of  flowering  plants,  as  quercitrin  in 
Gary  a  tomentosa,  Juglandaceas,  or  in  other  hickory  varieties; 
then  in  the  next  following  orders,  as  salicin  and  populin,  of 
the  willow  and  poplar;  antiarin,  of  the  Ants  jar,  or  Upas-tree 
(Antiaris  toxicaria] ;  acorin,  of  the  Arum,  and  coniferin,  of  the 
Coniferae.  Among  the  Lirioideae  groups  many  glucosides  occur, 
especially  saponin,  and  I  have  found  this  compound  in  species 
of  the  yucca,  agave,  and  among  dicotyledons  in  leguminous 
plants;  besides,  it  is  found  in  Rosaceae  and  other  parallel 
groups. 

Saponin  is  also  found  in  Smilax,  a  genus  partaking  somewhat 
of  the  nature  of  endogens  and  exogens,  and  serves  to  unite  all 
the  saponin  groups;1  and  although  this  compound  is  widely 
distributed  in  plants,  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  all  the  groups 
containing  it  belong  to  this  middle  evolutionary  division. 

Rosoll 2  has  found  saponin  in  the  cell-sap  of  living  roots  of 
Saponaria  and  Gysophila,  and  I  have  elsewhere  called  attention 

1  "Chemical  Basis  of  Plant  Forms."     See  p.  232. 

2  Monats.  Chem.,  v,  94;  Jahresb.  d.  Chem.,  1884. 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  273 

to  the  solvent  action  of  saponin  on  resins,1  also  on  calcium 
oxalate.  This  property  is  of  value  to  the  plant  not  only  by  act- 
ing as  a  solvent  of  insoluble  or  slightly  soluble  compounds,  and 
thus  assisting  it  in  obtaining  food  otherwise  difficult  of  access, 
but  also  resins  are  found  in  nearly  all  the  Lirioideae,  and  the 
presence  of  this  chemical  class  associated  with  saponin  shows 
a  physiological  adaptation  of  importance  to  the  plant.  It  may 
be  recalled  that  the  pink  family  is  remarkable  for  its  proportion 
of  lime,  and  this  element  is  frequently  found  in  large  quantities, 
as  well  as  resins,  in  other  saponin  orders.  Saponin  may  thus  be 
called  a  constructive  element  in  developing  the  plant  from  the 
multiplicity  of  floral  elements  to  cephalization  of  these  organs. 

Among  the  members  of  the  higher  groups  of  plants  many  of 
the  preceding  stages  of  chemical  evolution  are  represented  up  to 
a  certain  point,  when  the  plants  acquire  other  chemical  charac- 
teristics, —  i.e.,  indigo,  haematoxylin,  and  other  coloring-mat- 
ters of  the  leguminous  groups,  and  the  dyes  of  the  madder  plant, 
give  way  to  the  alkaloids  of  the  cinchona,  the  coffee,  the  atropa, 
and  the  strychnos  orders,  and  to  the  organic  acids  of  the  vale- 
rian order,  and  the  aromatic  and  volatile  compounds  of  the 
Compositae. 

Alkaloids,  though  so  widely  distributed,  are  not  found  in  the 
very  lowest  or  the  highest  plants.  Their  occurrence  in  fungi 
has  been  already  noted.  In  flowering  plants,  among  the  lower 
apetals,  piperin,  the  alkaloid  of  Piperaceae,  occurs;  also,  alka- 
loids are  found  in  the  monimia,  hemp,  laurel,  and  amaryUis 
orders,  and  in  colchicum;  but  they  are  exceptional  in  these 
lower  groups,  and  belong  properly  to  dicotyledons,  where  they 
are  found  in  many  orders. 

Besides  the  occurrence  of  compounds  peculiar  to  distinct 
plants,  or  whole  plant  groups,  another  class  is  found,  and  the 
substances  of  this  class  may  be  scattered  quite  generally  through 
the  plant  kingdom,  but  always  associated  with  some  other  com- 
pound. 

Coumarin,  the  odorous  principle  of  tonka-bean  and  vernal 
grass,  is  one  illustration;  its  occurrence  is  limited  to  those  plants 

1  "Yucca  Angustifolia,"  Trans.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  see  p.  126;  "Chemical 
Basis  of  Plant  Forms,"  Journal  Franklin  Institute.  See  p.  232. 


274        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

containing  oils,  and  since,  in  many  genera  in  which  this  sub- 
stance has  been  found,  certain  fixed  or  ethereal  oils  also  occur, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  this  constancy  relates  to  their  chemical 
evolution.  The  palms  are  the  lowest  plants  which  contain  cou- 
marin;  then  it  occurs  in  the  grass  and  rose  families  on  the  same 
evolutionary  plane,  also  among  the  leguminous,  madder,  rue, 
and  portulaca  orders,  and  in  orchids  and  Composite.  These 
plants  are  characterized  by  their  aromatic  and  volatile  oily  pro- 
ducts; and  vanillin,  the  fragrant  principle  of  vanilla,  also  oc- 
curs among  orchids.  It  may  be  noted  that  oils  are  formed  abun- 
dantly in  the  highest  plants. 

A  knowledge  of  the  chemical  compounds,  as  they  are  found 
grouped  in  plants,  is  a  first  step  towards  the  study  of  their 
evolution,  and  acquaintance  with  the  conditions  which  control 
their  synthesis  and  gradual  formation  in  the  plant  can  only  be 
had  by  patient  research.  The  simpler  compounds  of  which  any 
complex  substance  is  built,  if  located  as  compounds  of  lower 
plants,  would  indicate  the  lines  of  progression  from  the  lower 
to  the  higher  groups. 

It  has  been  already  said  that  every  plant  contains  compounds 
peculiar  to  it,  but  certain  compounds  seemxto  play  a  special 
part  in  plant  evolution,  since  the  wax  and  tannin  of  the  vascu- 
lar cryptogams  lead  to  the  tannin  and  wax  groups  of  the  apet- 
alous  plants,  and  the  starch  of  these  lower  plants  to  the  great 
starch  groups  of  the  monocotyledonous.  It  will  not  be  out  of 
place  to  note  here  that  the  greatest  accumulations  of  starch  oc- 
cur in  plant  orders  just  before  they  pass  on  to  a  higher  plane  of 
evolution.  This  is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  palm  and  neigh- 
boring orders  of  the  first  plane,  and  among  the  Lirioideae  of  the 
second  plane,  since  these  plants  are  the  richest  in  starch  con- 
stituents, and  it  seems  as  if  they  were  preparing  by  large  reserve 
of  food-supply  for  their  higher  position,  represented  by  more 
evolved  groups,  where  the  demands  for  nutrition  are  greater. 
Again,  the  line  of  cane  sugar  indicates  that  sugar  occurs  promi- 
nently in  plants  passing  from  simplicity  to  multiplicity  of  floral 
elements,  and  the  glucosides  in  their  turn  are  found  in  the  mid- 
dle stage  of  plant  development,  assisting  the  plants  to  the  high- 
est plane  of  cephalization. 


I 

pra/^sjp/?^ 

9 

TANNIN/ 

WAX 

STA 

RCH 

^^^ 

SUGAR 

^^, 

±^^ 

GLUCOSIDES 
CAOUCHOUC 

DYES 

SAP 

ONIN 
ESINJ 

l^v'V'v'VO 

D 

CAMPHOR 
RESINS 

YES 

STARCH 

Ol 

LS 

ALKALOIDS 

ACIDS 

OILS 

PLATE    II 


HIGHER  AND  LOWER  PLANTS  275 

Plate  II  is  a  chemical  representation,  drawn  after  Heckel's 
botanical  table,  and,  from  what  has  preceded  it,  will  be  easily 
comprehended.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  all  classes  of  chem- 
ical compounds  found  in  plants  are  represented,  since  only  a 
few  have  been  used  for  illustration,  nor  that  all  of  these  given 
compounds  occur  only  in  the  designated  plant  groups,  since 
they  may  occur  in  traces,  or  varying  quantities,  elsewhere. 
However,  these  compounds  are  conspicuous  as  being  especially 
typical  of  the  plant  groups  which  correspond  to  their  location, 
and  where  their  presence  is  doubtless  associated  with  the  plant's 
evolution. 

The  chemical  compounds  which  may  be  said  to  be  typical 
of  an  order,  species,  or  an  individual  member  of  a  series  would 
be  out  of  place  in  this  general  presentation. 

Some  plant  groups,  as  the  Proteaceae,  orchids,  and  Compo- 
sitae,  develop  in  aesthetic  beauty  at  the  expense  of  their  chemi- 
cal constituents, — all  resources  go  to  develop  the  perfection  of 
the  flower,  and  the  absence  of  numerous  compounds  in  these 
plants  is  a  strong  point  in  favor  of  chemical  evolution  favoring 
plant  development.  These  beautiful  plants,  being  among  the 
highest  of  their  series,  may  well  be  called  the  aristocrats  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

It  is  still  impossible  to  demonstrate  the  full  significance  of 
this  chemical  theory  in  plant  development,  but  it  will  be  evident 
to  any  one  who  examines  botanical  and  chemical  facts  that  the 
presence  of  certain  chemical  compounds  is  associated  with  cer- 
tain botanical  conditions,  and  where  these  conditions  are  va- 
riable, is  found  a  like  variability  of  chemical  composition.  If  it 
can  be  proved  that  chemical  and  botanical  morphology  are  not 
one  and  the  same,  at  least  the  two  are  very  intimately  corre- 
lated. 

It  has  been  said  that  many  of  the  constituents  found  in  plants 
are  the  result  of  destructive  metabolism,  and  are  of  no  further 
use  in  the  plant's  economy,  but  our  knowledge  of  what  consti- 
tute plastic  and  waste  products  is  by  no  means  settled,  and  even 
should  we  be  forced  to  accept  the  conclusion  that  some  pro- 
ducts are  of  no  use  to  the  plant,  yet  it  is  a  significant  fact  that 
certain  cell-tissues  or  organs  secrete  or  excrete  chemical  com- 


276       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

pounds  peculiar  to  them,  and  found  in  only  one  family,  or  in 
species  closely  allied  to  it. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  study  of  plant  life  cannot  be  confined 
within  the  limits  of  the  vegetable  cells,  since  its  radiations  reach 
to  the  domains  of  mineralogy  and  animal  life.  From  a  chem- 
ical point  alone  it  would  be  difficult  to  discriminate  in  every 
case  between  the  plant  and  animal  cell.  The  series  of  animal 
gums,  carbohydrates,  alkaloids,  and  coloring-matters  find 
their  analogous  series  in  plants.  By  the  study  of  embryology 
it  is  found  that  alantoin  occurs  in  animal  and  plant  life,  also 
glycogen  and  inosite  are  found  in  both  kingdoms,  and  the  se- 
cretion of  some  plant-leaves  is  a  fluid  chemically  like  the  ani- 
mal gastric  juice. 

M.  Leo  Errera,1  in  a  recent  paper  on  a  fundamental  condi- 
tion of  equilibrium  of  living  cells,  calls  attention  to  the  thin  and 
plastic  condition  of  plant  as  well  as  animal  cells  at  the  moment 
of  their  formation,  and  their  tendency  to  assume  a  form  which, 
under  the  same  conditions,  an  imponderable  lamina  of  liquid 
would  take,  and  he  attributes  to  this  fact  their  adaptability  and 
the  facility  with  which  they  change.  He  believes  that  we  can 
trace  to  this  cause  the  great  number  of  organic  forms,  and  for 
the  first  time  unite  the  architecture  of  the  cell  to  molecular 
physics.  Only  with  age  the  cell-membrane  becomes  thick  and 
offers  a  considerable  resistance. 

It  may  be  suggested  that  this  fact  is  further  exhibited  when 
applied  to  the  conditions  obtained  when  plants  pass  from  their 
younger  to  older  stages;  again,  it  is  seen  on  comparing  the  lower 
plastic  protoplasmic  plants  with  the  rigidity  and  firmness  of  the 
tissues  of  the  higher  plants,  and  in  the  change  from  the  semi- 
fluid to  the  formed  and  fixed  states  of  chemical  compounds. 

The  law  of  progression  is  one  that  regards  the  general  good 
to  the  disregard  of  the  individual;  since  in  the  death  or  fixation 
and  crystallization  of  individuals  the  vegetable  kingdom,  on  the 
whole,  has  ascended  to  its  highest  present  living  form,  and  many 
of  its  constituent  chemical  parts  had  long  ago  reached  their 
pinnacle  in  the  cycle  of  evolution.  This  concerns  equally  the 
changes  in  the  vegetable-cell,  and  its  complex  molecule  of  pro- 

1  Comp.  Rend.,  t.  xiii,  1886,  p.  822. 


HIGHER  AND   LOWER  PLANTS  277 

teid  is  built  from  simple  substances,  which  in  turn  break  down 
into  less  complex  bodies,  and  are  again  reconstructed  into  pro- 
teids,  or,  as  cellulose  and  other  compounds,  remain  as  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  tissue  in  higher  plants,  thus  serving  the  mechan- 
ical and  physiological  needs  of  the  organism. 

Aside  from  the  practical  application  of  plant  products  to 
dietetics,  pharmacy,  and  the  industries,  it  is  eminently  for  pur- 
poses of  scientific  investigation  that  the  field  of  plant  chemistry 
is  most  promising. 

It  has  been  suggested  to  me,  from  botanical  sources,  that  time 
will  be  unwisely  expended  over  a  detailed  study  of  the  chemical 
compounds  of  plants;  in  this,  as  in  mineralogy,  its  use  as  a 
means  of  classification  will  depend  upon  the  convictions  of  the 
investigator,  although  it  seems  to  me  that  many  of  the  vexed 
questions  of  plant  development  can  be  solved  only  by  a  full 
comprehension  of  vegetable  chemistry. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  "  botanists,"  the  knights  of  mor- 
phology and  systematic  classification,  will  thereby  be  deprived, 
by  chemists,  from  tilting  over  the  floral  tournament  courts. 
Perhaps  in  such  pleasant  pastimes  of  contest  for  disputed  plant 
groups  this  veteran  army  of  knights- errant  may  at  least  become 
weary,  and  willingly  exchange  the  lance  for  the  balance. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  is  so  vast  that  the  botanico- chemical 
facts  at  our  disposal  are  meagre  in  comparison  to  the  data  re- 
quired, and  in  consequence  many  of  the  explanatory  statements 
advanced  can  only  be  considered  in  the  light  of  speculation. 
Vistas  have  opened  most  promisingly  but  to  be  cut  off  suddenly 
by  a  limitation  of  these  details,  and  I  cannot  urge  too  strongly 
the  very  great  importance  of  minute  chemical  research  at  least 
in  certain  typical  members  of  botanical  groups.  Without  such 
investigation  a  great  deal  of  our  present  knowledge  is  worthless. 
The  changes  of  the  chemical  compounds  within  the  cell,  the 
simultaneous  appearance  of  two  or  more  compounds  always  in 
association,  and  the  predominance  of  some  one  compound  in 
certain  plant  groups,  should  be  seriously  considered  before  the 
evolution  of  plant  chemistry  be  definitely  approved  or  con- 
demned. These  facts  suggest  questions  which  must  be  answered 
before  a  further  advance  can  be  made  in  plant  biology. 


2  y8        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

The  practical  application  of  a  theory  which  advocates  that 
the  morphology  of  a  plant  is  the  outcome  of  its  chemistry,  will 
be  used  by  the  chemist  to  direct  him  to  certain  plant  groups  for 
any  compound  which  experience  proves  to  be  present  with 
similar  morphological  characters  in  other  groups. 

It  has  been  recently  suggested  *  that  many  of  the  chemical 
compounds  may  serve  the  plant  as  means  of  defense  against 
animals,  and  when  we  camphorize  our  furniture  and  poison  our 
flower-beds, .  we  are  only  imitating  and  reinventing  what  the 
plants  practiced  before  the  existence  of  man;  and  I  may  add 
that  the  cinchona- trees  of  malarial  countries  proclaimed  long 
since  their  subtle  therapeutical  skill  in  securing  for  themselves 
a  corner  in  quinine  manufacture,  independent  of  contempo- 
rary sources. 

A  full  acquaintance  with  the  chemical  compounds  of  living 
plant  orders  may  even  lead  to  a  chemistry  of  paleo-botany,  and 
where  the  fossil  forms  resemble  modern  groups,  as  in  some  of 
the  well-preserved  remains  lately  discovered  in  France,2  the 
same  chemical  compounds  might  have  existed  as  are  now  found 
in  similar  groups.  From  the  knowledge  which  will  one  day  be 
ours,  of  the  morphology  and  evolution  of  chemical  substances, 
a  flora  may  be  reconstructed  reaching  far  back  into  the  recesses 
of  time. 

In  minerals,  plants,  and  animals  the  same  principles  recur, 
though,  at  each  higher  plane,  under  more  complicated  condi- 
tions; and  any  one  who,  on  visiting  the  Hot  Springs  of  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  has  seen  the  non-carboniferous 
gelatinous  masses  assuming  the  forms  of  organized  life,  will 
ask  himself  if  silica,  under  some  conditions,  may  not  replace 
carbon  and  become  living  matter.  Since  Confervas  do  live  in 
these  springs  at  high  temperature,  perhaps  some  such  locality 
as  the  Yellowstone  may  have  been  the  birthplace  of  "a  pro- 
toplasmic primordial  atomic  globule." 

The  impulse  which  directs  minerals  to  masquerade  as  living 
plants  and  animals  often  manifests  itself,  for  example,  in  the 
ferns  called  stag-horns;  and  orchids,  disguised  like  insects,  pre- 

1  M.  Leo  Errera,  Royal  Bot.  Soc.  of  Belgium,  Revise  Scien.,  2gth  Jan.,  1887, 

2  M.  Louis  Crie,  Comp.  Rend.,  t.  ciii,  p.  1143. 


HIGHER  AND   LOWER   PLANTS  279 

tend  to  be  what  they  are  not.  When  will  all  of  these  intricacies 
of  nature's  secrets  belong  to  commonplace  facts  ?  The  day  is 
distant.  And  in  the  meantime  my  hour  is  drawing  to  a  close; 
and,  to  return  to  my  first  statement  of  the  evolution  of  the  chem- 
ical elements,  I  would  say  that  the  studies *  of  Lecoq  de  Bois- 
baudron,  Auer,  Demarcay,  and  Crookes  on  didymium,  and  the 
latter' s  researches  on  yttria,  and  more  recently  on  the  crimson 
line  of  phosphorescent  alumina,2  go  to  show  that  the  mole- 
cules of  these  so-called  elements  are  compound,  and  if  I  have 
dwelt  at  all  upon  this  subject,  in  connection  with  plant  life,  it 
is  on  account  of  the  indisputably  serious  nature  of  the  inves- 
tigations in  this  field.  The  following  concluding  remarks  of 
Professor  Crookes' s  address  3  show  that  the  theory  of  the 
chemical  evolution  of  plant  compounds  has  an  able  ally.  He 
says,  "  We  cannot  venture  to  assert  positively  that  our  so-called 
elements  have  been  evolved  from  one  primordial  matter,  but  we 
may  contend  that  the  balance  of  evidence  .  .  .  fairly  weighs 
in  favor  of  this  speculation.  .  .  .  The  doctrine  of  evolution,  as 
you  well  know,  has  thrown  a  new  light  upon  and  given  a  new 
impulse  to  every  department  of  biology,  leading  us,  may  we 
not  hope,  to  anticipate  a  corresponding  wakening  light  in  the 
domain  of  chemistry.  I  would  ask  investigators  not  neces- 
sarily either  to  accept  or  reject  the  hypothesis  of  chemical 
evolution,  but  to  treat  it  as  a  provisional  hypothesis;  to  keep 
it  in  view  in  their  researches,  to  inquire  how  far  it  lends 
itself  to  the  interpretation  of  the  phenomena  observed,  and  to 
test  experimentally  every  line  of  thought  which  points  in  this 
direction." 

From  the  above  sketch  I  have  attempted  to  show  that  the 
hypothesis  of  evolution  may  also  apply  to  the  chemistry  of  plant 
compounds,  and  that  plant  chemistry  will  be  found,  like  any 
special  study,  to  include  many  others.  It  is,  however,  excep- 
tional in  its  broad  range,  and  the  variety  of  its  topics,  like  the 
variations  of  flower-species,  may  be  cultivated  to  suit  the  taste 
of  the  investigator. 

1  Comp.  Rend.,  t.  civ,  1887,  p.  165,  M.  Henri  Besquerel. 

2  Chem.  News,  Jan.  21,  1887. 

8  Delivered  before  the  British  A.  A.  S.,  1886. 


ON  THE   OCCURRENCE   OF   SOLID   HYDROCAR- 
BONS IN  PLANTS1 

A  CONTRIBUTION  FROM  THE  CHEMICAL  LABORATORY  OF    THE    PHILADEL- 
PHIA COLLEGE  OF  PHARMACY 

[At  a  stated  meeting  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
Philadelphia,  March  16,  1888,  Miss  Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott 
made  the  following  remarks  on  the  Occurrence  of  a  Series  of 
New  Crystalline  Compounds  in  Higher  Plants. 

"In  many  plants,  especially  those  which  belong  to  the  natu- 
ral orders  Simarubacese,  Polemoniaceae,  Rubiaceae,  Ebenaceae, 
Rhodoraceae,  and  Compositae  occur,  respectively,  a  class  of  com- 
pounds which  present  definite  crystalline  forms.  They  are  ex- 
tracted from  the  plants  most  readily  by  a  light  petroleum- ether. 
Boiling  absolute  alcohol  was  used  to  purify  these  compounds 
from  fats,  wax,  and  coloring-matter,  and  by  fractional  crystalli- 
zation three  distinct  forms  of  crystals  were  obtained  which  in 
ultimate  analysis  represented  compounds  of  different  chemical 
constitution. 

"These  bodies  are  characterized  by  containing  a  high  per- 
centage of  carbon.  They  are  indifferent  to  alkalies  and  have 
high  melting-points.  The  discovery  of  one  of  these  compounds 
in  Cascara  amarga  was  made  by  me  in  1884,  and  announced 
at  the  Buffalo  Meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.  Since  that  time  my  investigations  are 
continuing,  and  from  those  studies  I  am  able  to  announce,  as 
derived  from  plant  sources,  compounds  which  until  now  have 
not  been  observed.  Lately,  from  independent  investigations, 
Professor  Henry  Trimble  has  also  discovered  similar  com- 

1  Printed  in  the  American  Journal  of  Chemistry,  Philadelphia,  July,  1888. 
Noticed  in  American  Chemical  Journal,  vol.  x,  p.  439;  also  in  Berichte  d. 
Deutschen  Chem,  Ges.,  vol.  xx,  p.  202.  In  this  investigation  and  report  Mr. 
Trimble  was  associated  with  Miss  Abbott. 


SOLID   HYDROCARBONS   IN   PLANTS        281 

pounds  in  various  plants.  Our  eventual  results  will  form  the 
substance  of  a  future  communication." 

The  results  of  the  investigations  referred  to  in  the  above  pre- 
liminary announcement  appear  in  the  following  paper,  entitled 
"On  the  Occurrence  of  Solid  Hydrocarbons  in  Plants,"  by 
Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott  and  Henry  Trimble.] 

WHEN  many  plants  of  the  higher  botanical  orders  are  ex- 
hausted with  petroleum-ether,  crystalline  compounds  may  be 
separated  from  the  extracts  which  have  not  been  noticed  previ- 
ously to  these  investigations.  These  compounds  are  also  obtained 
when  alcohol  or  ether  is  used  as  a  solvent ;  but  it  is  preferable, 
on  account  of  the  greater  number  of  constituents  extracted  by 
these  menstrua,  to  employ  petroleum- ether,  and  thus  avoid 
certain  difficulties  of  separation.  Among  the  plants  in  which 
up  to  this  time  these  compounds  have  been  discovered  may 
be  mentioned  Cascara  amarga,  Phlox  Carolina,  and  the  Phlox 
species,  Anthemis  nobilis,  and  in  different  species  of  the  follow- 
ing natural  orders :  Rubiaceae,  Rhodoraceae,  Eupatoriaceae,  and 
others  among  the  Compositae. 

-  The  crystals  from  these  petroleum-ether  extracts  first  at- 
tracted attention  in  the  winter  of  1884.  Samples  of  "  chichi- 
pate"  bark  which  yielded,  on  powdering,  about  two  hundred 
grams,  were  then  obtained  and  submitted  to  chemical  ex- 
amination. This  bark  was  subsequently,  from  chemical  analy- 
sis, identified  as  Cascara  amarga.1 

Other  investigations  prevented  the  announcement  of  this 
work  until  some  time  later,  under  the  title  of  "Preliminary 
Analysis  of  a  Honduras  Plant  named  '  Chichipate.' "  2  In  this 
paper  a  new  crystalline  compound  was  described  and  identified 
by  its  physical  and  chemical  properties  as  a  "camphor-like 
body."  Its  analysis  gave  the  following  results :  — 

I.  II. 

C.  80.84  80.90 

H.  10.13  io.li 

1  Journal  Franklin  Institute,  vol.  cxxiv,  p.  i,  Abbott. 

2  By  Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott.   Amer.  Assoc.  Adv.  of  Science,  Buffalo,  Aug., 
1886. 


282        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

A  compound  resembling  the  one  from  chichipate  was  also 
discovered  later  in  Phlox  Carolina,1  and  the  account  of  it  was 
read  before  a  meeting  of  the  American  Pharmaceutical  Asso- 
ciation at  Providence,  R.  L,  September,  1886.  The  combus- 
tions of  this  camphor-like  substance  gave  the  following:— 

I.  II. 

C.  82.49  82.57 

H.  ii. ii  11.23 

From  subsequent  study,  we  were  led  to  believe  that  the  above 
results  were  based  upon  a  mixture  of  compounds.  Because  of 
the  small  amounts  of  crude  material  then  at  our  disposal  we 
were  not  able  to  overcome  the  difficulties  inherent  in  purifying 
and  separating  these  substances.  However,  from  the  prelimi- 
nary investigations  we  were  induced  to  think  that  these  com- 
pounds presented  features  of  unusual  interest  and  novelty. 

Recently  we  began  anew  our  studies  upon  twenty-five  and 
twenty  kilos  of  Cascara  amarga  2  and  Phlox  Carolina  respec- 
tively. 

The  drugs  were  very  thoroughly  exhausted  with  a  light  pe- 
troleum-ether, boiling-point  under  45°  C.  The  total  solids  ex- 
tracted from  Cascara  amarga  were  2.015  Per  cent. ;  of  this  about 
o.i  per  cent,  were  fats.  The  yield  from  Phlox  Carolina  was  i.oo 
per  cent.,  including  traces  of  coloring- matter.  On  heating  to 
110°  C.,  there  was  no  appreciable  loss  of  weight  in  Cascara. 
The  Phlox  contained  small  quantities  of  volatile  oil. 

The  extracts,  on  evaporating  spontaneously,  deposited  upon 
the  sides  of  a  dish  or  beaker  glittering,  white,  feather-like  crys- 
tals, often  several  centimeters  in  length.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
glass  were  stellate  groups  of  brilliant  acicular  crystals.  Fats, 
wax,  and  in  Phlox  a  red  coloring-matter  accompanied  the 
crystalline  principle,  and  rendered  the  subsequent  purification 
tedious  and  difficult. 

The  method  finally  adopted  to  purify,  upon  freeing  the 
petroleum-ether  residue  from  fats  and  coloring-matter,  was  to 

1  "  On  the  Underground  Portion  of  Phlox  Carolina."    By  Henry  Trimble. 
Amer.  Jour.  Pharm.,  vol.  Iviii,  p.  479. 

2  By  Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  New  York,  August,  1887. 


SOLID  HYDROCARBONS  IN  PLANTS       283 

treat  it  with  boiling  absolute  alcohol,  filter  out  the  wax, 
which  separated  on  cooling,  and  allow  the  filtrate  to  evaporate 
at  the  ordinary  temperature.  By  fractional  crystallization  at 
least  three  substances  of  different  and  definite  crystalline  forms 
have  been  separated.  We  have,  at  present,  examined  only  one 
of  these  constituent  compounds;  whether  the  others  are  the 
result  of  oxidation  during  the  separating  and  purifying  pro- 
cesses or  exist  as  such  in  the  plants,  we  are  now  unable  to 
state. 

The  subject  of  our  communication  is  the  compound  the  least 
soluble  in  alcohol  of  the  three  obtained  by  fractionation.  It 
formed  silky,  acicular  crystals,  often  two  to  four  centimeters 
in  length,  which,  under  polarized  light,  gave  a  play  of  colors. 
It  also  exhibited  decidedly  electrical  properties.  To  determine 
the  melting-point,  about  0.5  of  a  gram  of  the  crystals  were 
placed  directly  in  the  inner  tube  of  an  apparatus  devised  by 
Roth,  for  the  determination  of  melting-points.  The  substance 
melted  at  196.2°  C.  to  196.4°  C.,  leaving  a  clear,  amber-colored 
mass.  On  heating  to  a  higher  temperature,  the  substance  de- 
composed and  vapor  was  driven  off  in  dense  clouds.  It  had  an 
odor  very  like  sandal  wood;  when  condensed  upon  a  cool  sur- 
face, the  sublimate  consisted  of  fluffy  crystals  of  a  lower  melt- 
ing-point. 

The  silky,  acicular  crystals  were  soluble  in  petroleum-ether, 
ethylic  and  acetic  ethers,  benzole,  chloroform,  hot  alcohol,  gla- 
cial acetic  acid,  acetic  anhydride,  and  linseed  oil.  The  addition 
of  water  to  the  acetic  anhydride  reprecipitated  the  substance, 
in  white,  flaky  masses.  The  crystals  were  insoluble  in  hot, 
cold,  or  acidulated  water,  or  in  the  alkalies  or  other  hydrate 
solutions ;  insoluble  in  amyl  alcohol  and  alcoholic  soda.  Nitric 
and  sulphuric  acids  dissolved  the  crystals ;  sulphuric  acid  gave 
a  reddish-brown  coloration. 

The  first  ultimate  analyses  of  this  purified  product  from 
Cascara  amarga  gave  the  following  results: — 

i.  ii.  m. 

C.  86.30  86.29  86.33 

H.  12.96  12.96  12.83 


284        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

While  the  mean  percentage  obtained  from  these  combustions 
indicated  oxidation  or  the  presence  of  adherent  impurities,  they 
also  pointed  strongly  to  the  conclusion  that  the  compound  was 
a  solid  hydrocarbon. 

The  announcement  of  this  discovery  was  reserved  until  it 
should  be  confirmed  by  further  study.  But  a  paper  describing 
generally  the  occurrence  of  crystalline  compounds  rich  in  car- 
bon was  read,  by  title,  last  summer  before  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science.1  This  inference  has 
been  put  beyond  doubt  by  the  further  study  of  the  compound. 

Twenty-five  kilos  of  Cascara  amarga  were  extracted  and 
the  residue  purified  by  often  repeated  fractional  crystalliza- 
tions, from  which  the  following  results  were  obtained :- 

0.1058  grms.  gave  0.3413  CO2  and  0.1133  H2O. 

0.1113  grms.  gave  0.3588  CO2  and  0.1193  H2O. 

I.  II. 

C.  87.97  87.89 

H.  11.89  II-9° 

99.86  99.79 

From  the  plants  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  this  paper 
in  which  this  crystalline  principle  exists,  the  Phlox  Carolina 
was  also  selected  as  the  one  to  confirm  still  further  the  pre- 
sence and  identity  of  this  principle  and  its  chemical  compo- 
sition. 

Recently  about  15  kilos  of  this  drug  were  exhausted  and  the 
compound  separated  and  repeatedly  purified.  Its  ultimate 
analyses  gave  the  following:  — 

0.1117  grms.  gave  0.3600  CO2  and  0.1208  H2O. 
0.1314  grms.  gave  0.4228  CO2  and  0.1421  H2O. 

I.  II.     Theory  for   (CnH18)x 

C.  87.90  87.76  88.00 

H.    12.02  12.02  12.00 


99.92  99-78  100.00 

The  above  results  indicate  that  this  compound  is  an  unsat- 
urated  hydrocarbon,  and  we  intend  to  make  it  the  subject  of 

1  By  Helen  C.  De  S.  Abbott,  New  York,  August,  1887. 


SOLID   HYDROCARBONS   IN  PLANTS        285 

a  thorough  chemical  investigation  with  a  view  of  ascertaining 
its  chemical  constitution. 

Whilst  the  discovery  of  the  hydrocarbon  resulted  from  in- 
dependent investigations  on  different  plants,  we  are  agreed 
that  the  identity  of  the  compounds  justifies  us  in  publishing 
together  these  results  of  our  studies. 


UBER   EINE   NEUE   BILDUNGSWEISE  VON   ARO- 
MATISCHEN   NITRILEN  * 

BEKANNTLICH  ist  die  Condensation  von  Aldehyden  und  Keton- 
sauren  mit  aromatischen  Kohlenwasserstoffen  als  das  End- 
resultat  zweier  Vorgange  aufgefasst  worden,  indem  das  erste 
Stadium  dieser  Reaction  eine  der  Aldolbildung  entsprechende 
Polymerisation  darstellt,  wobei  ein  secundares  Carbinol  ent- 
steht,  und  nun  das  Condensationsmittel  auf  die  entstandene 
Verbindung  und  den  Kohlenwasserstoff  unter  Wasserentzie- 
hung  einwirkt.  Diese  Auffassung  ist  durch  die  schon  von  V. 
B  a  e  y  e  r  2  beobachtete  Wasserentziehung  aus  Gemischen  von 
Carbinolen  und  aromatischen  Kohlenwasserstoffen  unter- 
stiitzt  worden,  sowie  dadurch,  dass  spater  V.  Meyer  und  Wurs- 
ter3  aus  Benzylalkohol  und  Benzol  das  Diphenylmethan, 
und  Hemilian4  aus  Diphenylcarbinol  und  Benzol  das  Tri- 
phenylmethan  darstellten,  und  namentlich  dass  man  in  gewis- 
sen  Fallen  die  Bildung  von  solchen  intermediaren  Zwischen- 
producten  constatirt  hat.  Es  schien  uns  moglich  auch  die  durch 
Addition  von  Blausaure  auf  Aldehyde  und  Ketone  entstehende 
Hydroxynitrile,  welche  als  Carbinolderivate  aufgefasst  werden 
konnen,  mit  aromatischen  Kohlenwasserstoffen  zu  conden- 
siren,  wodurch  man  zu  einer  neuen  Synthese  von  aromatischen 
Nitrilen  gelangen  wiirde.  Die  folgenden  Versuche  mit  Man- 
delsaurenitril  und  verschiedenen  aromatischen  Kohlenwas- 
serstoffen zeigen,  dass  in  der  That  diese  Synthese  mit  Leichtig- 
keit  ausfiihrbar  ist. 

Es  wurde  zuerst  versucht,  das  Diphenylacetonitril  darzu- 

1  Printed  in  the  Berichte  der  deutschen  chemischen  Gesellschaft,  XXV, 
1615;  also  in  pamphlet  form,  Berlin,  1892.  With  Mrs.  Michael  was  associated 
John  Jeanpretre. 

2  Diese  Berichte  VT,  221.  *  Diese  Berichte  VI,  963. 
4  Diese  Berichte  VII,  1203. 


VON  AROMATISCHEN  NITRILEN  287 

stellen  und  zu  diesem  Zwecke  haben  wir  zu  einem  Gemisch 
von  einer  Losung  von  einem  Theile  Mandelsaurenitril  und 
zwei  Theilen  Benzol  etwa  ein  Theil  Phosphorpentoxyd  zuge- 
setzt ;  und,  nachdem  in  der  Kalte  keine  Einwirkung  stattf and, 
auf  dem  Wasserbade  wahrend  fiinf  Stunden  erwarmt.  Die 
Reactionsmasse  wurde  mit  Wasser  gewaschen,  behufs  Entfer- 
nung  der  Phosphorsaure,  und  mehrmals  mit  Benzol  ausgezo- 
gen.  Eine  bedeutende  Menge,  durch  Einwirkung  von  Phos- 
phorpentoxyd auf  Mandelsaurenitril  allein  entstandener  Ver- 
bindungen  blieben  als  in  Benzol  unlosliche  stark  gefarbte  Harze 
zuriick,  wahrend  der  Destillationsriickstand  der  filtrirten 
Benzollosung  durch  Destination  im  Vacuum  etwa  ein  Drittheil 
der  angewandten  Menge  Mandelsaurenitrils  an  einem  gelb- 
lichen  6le  lieferte,  das  bald  nachher  erstarrte.  Unter  45  mm 
ging  die  Verbindung  gegen  200°  iiber  und  schmolz  nach  ein- 
igen  Krystallisationen  aus  Ligroi'n  bei  72°.  Anschiitz  und 
Romig1  haben  durch  Erhitzen  von  Cyanquecksilber  mit 
Diphenylbromathan  ebenfalls  das  Diphenylessigsaurenitril 
dargestellt  und  denselben  Schmelzpunkt  beobachtet. 

Unter  ganz  ahnlichen  Bedingungen  wurde  der  Versuch  mit 
einem  Gemisch  von  Mandelsaurenitril  und  Toluol  ausgefiihrt 
und  er  nahm  auch  einen  entsprechenden  Verlauf .  Nach  Ent- 
fernung  des  Toluols  destillirte  bei  40  mm  Druck  gegen  240° 
eine  gelbliche  Fliissigkeit  die  ebenfalls  bald  erstarrte  und  durch 
Krystallisation  aus  verdunntem  Alkohol  seidenglanzende 
Nadeln  vom  Schmelzpunkt  61°  lieferte,  die  in  absolutem  Al- 
kohol und  Ather  sehr  leicht  loslich  sind. 

Eine  Verbrennung  ergab  folgende  fur  Tolylphenylaceto- 
nitril  stimmende  Zahlen. 

I.    0.2096  g  gab  0.6697  g  Kohlensaure  und  0.1294  g  Wasser. 
II.    0.2819  g  Substanz  lieferte  16.5  cc  Stickstoff  bei  12°  und  754  mm 
Druck. 

CN  Gefunden 

Ber.furC,Hs.<CsH4.CH]  I.          II. 

C  86.95  86.90       —    pCt. 

H  6.28  6.84       —      " 

N  6.77  —      6.90      " 

1  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  233,  349. 


288       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Dieselbe  Verbindung  ist  schon  von  Neure  l  auf  eine  um- 
standliche  Weise  gewonnen  worden,  indem  er  Chlorphosphor 
auf  Paraphenyltolylessigsaureamid  einwirken  liess,  mit  dem 
Unterschied,  dass  der  Schmelzpunkt  derselben  von  ihm  zu  59° 
angegeben  wurde. 

Um  die  bedeutende  Verharzung,  die  sich  bei  den  beschrie- 
benen  Condensationen  zeigt  zu  verringern,  haben  wir  als  was- 
serentziehendes  Mittel  Zinntetrachlorid  benutzt,  und  auf  diese 
Weise  kann  man  in  der  That  eine  bedeutend  bessere  Ausbeute 
erzielen.  Zu  einer  Losung  von  Mandelsaurenitril  in  Toluol, 
in  molecularen  Verhaltnissen,  wurde  die  Halfte  am  Gewichte 
von  Zinntetrachlorid  zugesetzt  und  das  Gemisch  farbte  sich 
schon  bei  gewohnlicher  Temperatur  stark  dunkel;  die  Re- 
action wurde  aber  durch  zweistiindiges  Erwarmen  auf  dem 
Wasserbade  beendigt,  wobei  sich  nur  eine  ganz  geringe  Ent- 
wicklung  von  Blausaure  bemerkbar  machte.  Das  Ganze 
wurde  in  Wasser  gegossen  und  nach  Zusatz  von  etwas  Ather 
getrennt.  Durch  Destination  des  Atherriickstandes  im  Va- 
cuum wurden  neben  unverandertem  Toluol  und  etwas  Ben- 
zaldehyd  etwa  30  pCt.  der  theoretischen  Ausbeute  von  To- 
lylphenylacetonitril  als  schwach  gefarbtes,  bald  erstarrendes  Ol 
gewonnen. 

Zur  Bereitung  der  Saure  haben  wir  das  Nitril  mit  concen- 
trirter  Salzsaure  im  Rohr  auf  100°  erhitzt,  wobei  aber  nach  12 
Stunden  noch  keine  Verseifung  stattgefunden  hatte.  Letztere 
Operation  gelingt,  wenn  das  Nitril  wahrend  sechs  Stunden  mit 
einer  concentrirten  alkoholischen  Kalilosung  am  Riickfluss- 
kiihler  erwarmt  wird.  Nach  Entfernung  des  Alkohols  und  Zu- 
satz von  Wasser  fallt  beim  Ansauern  ein  roth  gefarbtes  Ol 
aus,  welches  wir  zur  Reinigung  in  Ammoniak  losten  und  durch 
Zusatz  von  Chlorbaryum  in  das  fast  unlosliche  Baryumsalz  per 
Tolylphenylessigsaure  verwandelten.  Durch  Krystallisation 
aus  Alkohol  kann  es,  wie  Zincke2  beschreibt,  leicht  ge- 
reinigt  werden;  eine  Krystallwasserbestimmung,  die  2  Mol. 
Krystallwasser  ergab,  stimmt  mit  den  Angaben  von  Zincke 
uberein. 

1  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  250,  149. 

2  Diese  Berichte  X,  997. 


VON  AROMATISCHEN   NITRILEN  289 

0.2203  g  Substanz  gaben  0.0145  g  Wasser. 

Ber.  fur  C28H24O4Ca  2H2O  Gefunden 

H2O  6.84  6.59  pCt. 

Durch  Zersetzen  dieses  Salzes  mit  verdiinnter  Salzusare  ge- 
winnt  man  die  entsprechende  Saure  von  Neuem  als  Ol,  das 
in  kurzer  Zeit  fast  vollstandig  fest  wird.  Nach  einigen  Krys- 
tallisationen  aus  Alkohol  erhielten  wir  die  Verbindung  rein 
mit  dem  schon  von  Zincke  gefundenen  Schmelzpunkt 

"5°: 

Wir  versuchten  ferner  Mandelsaurenitril  mit  Mesitylen 'zu 

condensiren  und  zwar  so,  dass  auf  3  Theile  Nitril  2  Theile 
Mesitylen  und  ein  Theil  Zinntetrachlorid,  wahrend  sechs 
Stundun  auf  Wasserbadtemperatur  erhitzt  wurden.  Durch 
Behandeln  der  Reactionsmasse  mit  Wasserdampf  wurde  un- 
verandertes  Mesitylen  entfernt,  das  aus  dem  Riickstand 
gewonnene  Ol,  etwa  40  pCt.  der  theoretischen  Menge,  wurde 
bei  40  mm  Druck  zwischen  220°  und  230°  destillat.  Das  De- 
stillat  erstarrt  sogleich  und  wurde  durch  wiederholte  Krys- 
tallisation  aus  Ligroi'n  und  verdiinntem  Alkohol  in  schwach 
gelblichen  Prismen  erhalten,  die  constant  bei  91°  schmolzen. 

Die  folgende  Verbrennung  stimmt  mit  Phenyltrimethyl- 
phenylacetonitril  iiberein. 

PNT 
Ber.  fur  C6H5  —  CH  <  JrJ,     ,-„  N  o  f     j 

C6H2.  (CH3)3          Gefunden 

k      C          86.80  86.57  PCt. 

H  7.23  7.48  pCt. 

Mit  Naphtalin  und  Mandelsaurenitril  geht  die  Condensa- 
tion viel  leichter  vor  sich  als  mit  Benzol  oder  Toluol.  Um  das 
Phenylnaphtylacetonitril  darzustellen,  haben  wir  zuerst  Phos- 
phorpentoxyd  auf  das  blosse  Gemisch  der  beiden  Korper  ein- 
wirken  lassen,  aber  es  fand  eine  starke  Blausaure-Entwickel- 
ung  unter  tiefgehender  Verharzung  statt.  Wirh  aben  daher 
das  Nitril  wie  das  Naphtalin  in  Chloroform  gelost  und  nach 
Zusatz  des  Phosphorpentoxyds  wahrend  sechs  Stunden  auf 
dem  Wasserbade  erwarmt.  Die  sehr  dunkel  gefarbte  Fliissig- 
keit  wurde  alsdann  mit  Wasser  behandelt  und  zur  Trennung 
von  den  harzigen  Nebenproducten  mit  Ather  ausgeschiittelt ; 


2  9o        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

der  Riickstand,  der  nach  dem  Abdestilliren  des  Athers  hin- 
terblieb,  wurde  im  Vacuum  rectificirt,  wo,  nachdem  unveran- 
dertes  Naphtalin  iibergegangen  war,  unter  45  mm  Druck  ein 
gelbes  dickfliissiges  6l  bei  280°  ohne  Zersetzung  destillirte. 
Im  Exsiccator  erstarrte  das  ganze  Destillat  nach  kurzer  Zeit 
und  die  Masse  wurde  zur  Reingewinnung  aus  Alkohol  um- 
krystallisirt.  Wir  erhielten  das  neue  Nitril  auf  diese  Weise  in 
schonen  farblosen  Prismen,  die  bei  97°  schmolzen.  Sie  sind 
ziemlich  loslich  in  Alkohol  und  Chloroform,  weniger  loslich  in 
Ather  und  fast  unloslich  in  Ligroin  und  Wasser.  Durch  fol- 
gende  Verbrennung  wird  die  Zusammensetzung  als  Naphtyl- 
phenylacetonitril  bestatigt. 

0.2295  &  gaben  0.7481  g  Kohlensaure  und  0.1175  g  Wasser. 
Ber.  fur  C6H5.  CH  <  ™  Gefunden 


C  88.88  89.33  pCt. 

H  5.76  5.69  pCt. 

Selbst  unter  diesen  Bedingungen  ist  die  Ausbeute  immer 
noch  gering  und  geht  nicht  liber  10  bis  12  pCt.  der  Theorie. 
Wurde  dagegen  Zinntetrachlorid  als  Condensationsmittel  in 
Anwendung  gebracht,  so  gelangten  wir  zu  weit  giinstigeren 
Resultaten.  Das  Naphtalin  wurde  in  Chloroform  gelost,  die- 
selbe  Menge  Mandelsaurenitril  zugefugt  und  mit  der  Halfte 
des  Gewichtes  Zinntetrachlorid  versetzt.  Das  Ganze  erwarmte 
man  wahrend  zehn  Stunden  auf  dem  Wasserbade,  behandelte 
dann  behufs  Entfernung  unveranderten  Naphtalins  und  etwas 
gebildeten  Benzaldehyds  mit  Wasserdampf  und  zog  den  Riick- 
stand mit  Ather  aus.  Wir  gewannen  auf  diesem  Wege  40 
bis  45  pCt.  der  Theorie  eines  rothbraunen  sehr  dicken  Oles, 
das  unter  38  mm  Druck  fast  vollstandig  zwischen  271°  bis  274° 
als  gelbliche,  schon  griinfluorescirende  Fliissigkeit  iiberging; 
sobald  alles  fest  geworden  war,  reinigten  wir  das  Product  wie 
oben  angegeben,  durch  Krystallisation  aus  Alkohol. 

Die  Verseifung  dieses  Naphtylphenylacetonitrils  gelingt 
durch  zweistiindiges  Erhitzen  mit  alkoholischem  Kali,  und 
zwar  kamen  auf  einen  Theil  Nitril  zwei  Theile  Kalihydrat  in 
Anwendung.  Versetzt  man  die  noch  heisse  Losung  mit  dem 


VON  AROMATISCHEN    NITRILEN          291 

gleichen  Volumen  Wasser,  so  krystallisirt  beim  Erkalten  das 
Kaliumsalz  der  Saure  in  perlmutterglanzenden  Blattchen  aus. 
Aus  der  wassrigen  Losung  des  Salzes  fallt  beim  Ansauern  rein 
weisse  Naphtylphenylessigsaure  nieder,  die  nach  Krystallisa- 
tion  aus  Alkohol  constant  bei  141°  schmilzt.  Die  Verbrennung 
dieser  Saure  gab  folgende  Zahlen: 

0.1605  g  Substanz  gaben  0.4830  g  Kohlensaure  und  0.0770  g  Wasser. 

Ber.  fur  C6H5 .  CH<£°°H  Gefunden 

don? 
C       82.44  82.05  pCt. 

H         5-33  5-34  " 

Diese  Saure  bildet  prismatische  Saulen,  welche  in  Alkohol, 
Ather,  Chloroform  und  Schwefelkohlenstoff  loslich  sind,  weni- 
ger  leicht  in  Benzol  und  gar  nicht  in  Wasser. 

Die  hier  mitgetheilte  Synthese  von  aromatischen  Nitrilen 
besitzt  ein  zweifaches  Interesse,  da  sie  gestattet,  sonst  sehr 
schwierig  darstellbare  Kb'rper  leicht  in  jeder  Quantitat  zu  er- 
halten  und  sie  ermoglicht  deshalb  das  Verhalten  soldier  Ni- 
trile  1  gegen  Natrium  leichter  zu  studiren. 

Wir  beabsichtigen  die  neuen  Nitrile  in  dieser  Beziehung  zu 
untersuchen,  sowie  Versuche  iiber  die  Condensation  von  an- 
deren  aromatischen,  sowie  auch  fetten  Hydroxynitrilen  mit 
aromatischen  Kohlenwasserstoffen  anzustellen,  und  mochten 
uns  die  weitere  Ausarbeitung  dieses  Themas  vorbehalten. 

1  V-  Meyer,  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  250,  118. 


ZUR  KENNTNISS  DER  MANDELSAURE  UND  IHRES 

NITRILS  1 

NACHDEM  VON  MEYER*  gezeigt  hat,  dass  Phenylacetonitril 
ein  Natriumderivat  lieferte,  welches  zur  Darstellung  von  ho- 
mologen  Nitrilen  benutzt  werden  kann,  war  es  wahrscheinlich 
dass  Phenylathoxyacetonitril  gegen  Natrium  in  ahnlicher  Weise 
sich  verhalten  wiirde.  Die  Ausbildung  einer  solchen  Methode 
ware  insofern  von  Interesse,  da  man  durch  Einwirkung  von 
Alkyljodiden  und  Erhitzen  der  alkylirten  Verbindungen  mit 
Salzsaure  zur  Synthese  von  der  Atropasaure  und  Homologen 
derselben  gelangen  konnte. 

Leider  sind  wir  bei  der  Darstellung  von  Phenylathoxyace- 
tonitril auf  unerwartete  Schwierigkeiten  gestossen,  und  es  ist 
uns  bis  jetzt  nicht  gelungen,  dessen  habhaft  zu  werden,  aber 
die  dahin  zielenden  Versuche  haben  einige  interessante  That- 
sachen  kennen  gelehrt,  die  wir  hier  mittheilen  mochten,  sowie 
auch  einige  Versuche  tiber  das  Amid  und  den  Athylather  der 
Mandelsaure.  In  Betreff  der  letztgenannten  Verbindungen  ex- 
istiren  Angaben  in  der  Literatur,  wonach  beide  Verbindungen 
in  zweifachen  Formen  existiren  sollen  und  es  schien  von  Wich- 
tigkeit  diesen  Gegenstand  naher  zu  untersuchen. 

Wir  haben  zuerst  das  Natriumderivat  des  Mandelsaureni- 
trils  darzustellen  versucht,  um  darauf  durch  Einwirkung  von 
Athyljodid  das  gesuchte  Phenylathoxyacetonitril  darzustellen. 

Die  Auflosung  des  Natriums  in  absolutem  Alkohol  wurde 
langsam  mit  der  entsprechenden  Menge  des  Nitrils  versetzt, 
wobei  nur  eine  leichte  Triibung  entstand.  Sodann  wurde  die 
aquivalente  Menge  Jodathyl  hinzugefugt  und  auf  dem  Was- 

1  Printed  in  Berichte  der  deutschen  chemischen  Gesellschaft,  XXV,  1678; 
also  in  pamphlet  form,  Berlin,  1892.    With  Mrs.  Michael  was  associated  John 
Jeanpretre. 

2  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  250,  123. 


DER  MANDELSAURE   UND   IHRES   NITRILS  293 

serbade  wahrend  einiger  Stunden  erwarmt.  Wir  haben  aber 
nur  Benzoin  und  Benzaldehyd  aus  dem  Reactionsproduct 
gewinnen  konnen.  Es  wurde  nun  die  Einwirkung  von  Natrium 
allein  auf  Mandelsaurenitril  in  atherischer  Losung  untersucht. 
Es  fand  eine  Einwirkung  unter  Wasserstoffentwicklung  statt, 
aber  das  zuerst  entstandene  Natriumderivat  hatte  sich  in  Cyan- 
natrium  und  Benzaldehyd  zersetzt. 

Wir  haben  nun  das  Phenylathoxyacetonitril  durch  Darstel- 
lung  des  Phenylchloracetonitrils  und  Behandlung  derselben 
mit  Natriumathylat  darzustellen  gesucht.  Es  wurde  das  Man- 
delsaurenitril tropfenweise  zu  einer  Mischung  von  Phosphor- 
pentachlorid  mit  dem  dreifachen  Gewichte  Benzol  gefugt, 
unter  guter  Abkiihlung  von  aussen.  Sobald  die  anfangs  ziem- 
lich  heftige  Reaction  nachliess,  wurde  langsam  auf  dem  Was- 
serbade  erwarmt,  bis  alles  Chlorid  verschwunden  ist.  Nach 
Abktihlung  wurde  das  Einwirkungsproduct  vorsichtig  auf 
zerkleinertes  Eis  gegossen,  und  nach  vollstandiger  Zersetzung 
des  Phosphoroxychlorids  die  Benzolschicht  abgehoben. 

Beim  Abdestilliren  des  Benzols  hinterblieb  ein  starkge- 
farbtes  Ol,  das  im  luftverdiinnten  Raume  rectificirt  wurde, 
und  nach  wiederholter  Destination  ging  die  Hauptmenge  zwi- 
schen  131°  und  133°  iiber: 

0.1957  g  Substanz  gaben  nach  Carius  0.1856  g  Chlorsilber. 
0.1998  g  Substanz  lieferten  15.2  ccm  StickstofF  bei  754  mm  Druck  und  7°. 
Berechnet  fur  C8H6NC1  Gefunden 

Cl     23.43  23.45  pCt. 

N      9.24  9.16 

Das  Phenylchloracetonitril  bildet  eine  farblose,  stark  licht- 
brechende  Flussigkeit,  deren  Dampfe  auf  Augen  und  Respira- 
tionsorgane  einen  ausserordentlich  heftigen  Reiz  austiben. 

Wird  dieses  Nitril  mit  einem  Uberschuss  von  concentrirter 
Salzsaure  im  Rohr  auf  100°  erhitzt,  so  findet  vollstandige  Ver- 
seifung  statt.  Die  gebildete  farblose  Krystallmasse  wurde  ab- 
gesaugt  und  mit  einer  concentrirten  Losung  von  Natriumcar- 
bonat  behandelt.  Die  filtrirte  alkalische  Losung  schied  beim 
Ansauern  ein  gelbliches  Ol  aus,  das  beim  Stehen  bald  erstarrte. 
Durch  Krystallisation  aus  Alkohol  erhielten  wir  die  Saure  in 


294        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

farblosen  Nadeln  vom  Schmelzpunkt  78°,  in  Ubereinstim- 
mung  mit  den  Angaben  von  R.  Meyer1  fiir  die  Phenylchlo- 
ressigsaure,  was  durch  die  folgende  Chlorbestimmung  noch 
bestatigt  wurde. 

0.1804  g  lieferten  nach  Carius  0.1478  g  Chlorsilber. 

Berechnet  fur  C8H7O2C1  Gefunden 

Cl    20.50  20.30  pCt. 

Den  in  Natriumcarbonat  unloslichen  Theil  krystallisirten 
wir  mehrere  Male  aus  heissem  Benzol  um.  Die  farblosen,  in 
Alkohol  und  Ather  leicht  loslichen  Nadeln  schmolzen  ohne 
Zersetzung  bei  116°. 

Diese  Substanz  ist  das  Amid  der  Phenylchloressigsaure : 

0.1404  g  gaben  10.6  ccm  Stickstoff  bei  13°  und  755  mm  Druck. 
Ber.  fur  C8H8ONC1  Gefunden 

N    8.86  8.26  pCt. 

Die  Einwirkung  von  Natriumathylat  auf  das  Chlornitril  er- 
gab  ein  unerwartetes  Resultat.  Bringt  man  das  Nitril  in  eine 
alkoholische  Losung  von  Natriumathylat,  so  entsteht  augen- 
blicklich  ein  Niederschlag,  wahrend  die  Losung  eine  blaugriine, 
dann  gelbliche  Farbung  annimmt.  Nach  mehrstlindigem  Stehen 
wurde  filtrirt  und  der  Niederschlag  mit  Chloroform  extrahirt, 
und  von  unloslichem  Salz  abfiltrirt.  Das  Filtrat  wurde  verdun- 
stet  und  der  schwach  gefarbte  Riickstand,  einmal  aus  Alkohol 
krystallisirt,  schmolz  bei  158°.  Die  aus  einer  Stickstoffbestim- 
mung,  sowie  dem  Schmelzpunkt  gezogene  Annahme  dass  der 
Korper  Dicyanstilben  sei,  wurde  durch  Uberfiihren  in  das 
Anhydrid  der  entsprechenden  Saure  vollkommen  bestatigt. 

Die  Reaction  ware  demnach  folgendermaasen  vor  sich  ge- 
gangen: 

2  C6H5-CHCl+2NaOC2H3 

I 
CN 

C5H5-C-CN 
=  2  NaCl+2C2H5OH+ 

C6H5-C-CN 

1  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  220,  43. 


DER  MANDELSAURE  UND   IHRES   NITRILS     295 

Zu  einem  ganz  gleichen  Resultate  gelangten  wir,  als  trocknes 
in  Benzol  suspendirtes  Natriumalkoholat  angewandt  wurde. 

Um  die  Bildung  des  Dicyanstilbens  zu  erklaren,  kann  man 
annehmen,  dass  zuerst  ein  unstabiles  Natriumderivat  des 
Phenylchloracetonitrils  sich  bildet,  welches  zugleich,  unter  Ab- 
spaltung  von  Salz,  unter  Polymerisation,  oder  auch  dass  zwei 
Molekiile  desselben  auf  einander  einwirken,  um  Dicyanstilben 
zu  bilden. 

Die  beschriebenen  Reactionen  bieten  eine  vorzugliche  Me- 
thode  zur  Darstellung  vom  Dicyanstilben,  da  das  Chloronitril 
leicht  in  jeder  Quantitat  darzustellen  ist  und  die  Ausbeute  an 
Dicyanstilben  bedeutend  giinstiger  ist,  als  bei  Anwendung  des 
Verfahrens  von  R  e  i  m  e  r.1 

Fiigt  man  zu  einer  atherischen  Losung  von  Phenylchlora- 
cetonitril  das  Doppelte  der  aquivalenten  Menge  Anilin  und 
erwarmt  langsam  auf  dem  Wasserbade,  so  scheidet  sich  salz- 
saures  Anilin  aus.  Der  Atherruckstand  wurde  mit  Wasser 
behandelt  und  sodann  wiederholt  aus  Alkohol  umkrystallisirt, 
wobei  farblose  Nadeln  vom  Schmelzpunkt  85°  erhalten  wurden, 
was,  wie  das  Ergebniss  folgender  Stickstoffbestimmung  mit 
den  Angaben  fur  Phenylanilidoessigsaurenitril  von  C.  O. 
Cech.2  und  Tiemann  und  Piest3  vollkommen  liber- 
einstimmt. 

0.1572  g  Substanz  lieferten  19  ccm  Stickstoff  bei  13°  und  753  mm  Druck . 
Ber.  fur  C14H12N3  Gefunden 

N     14.19  14.15  pCt 

Wird  Mandelsaurenitril  mit  Essigsaureanhydrid  in  molecu- 
larer  Menge  wahrend  3  Stunden  am  Ruckflusskuhler  zum  Sie- 
den  erwarmt,  so  bildet  sich  fast  quantitativ  die  Acetylverbind- 
ung.  Durch  Destination  im  Vacuum  wurde  sie  als  farbloses 
dickfliissiges  Ol  erhalten,  das  unter  25  mm  Druck  bei  152° 
(Bad  170°)  siedet. 

Die  Verbrennung  dieser  Verbindung  lieferte  entsprechende 
Zahlen: 

1  Diese  Berichte  XIV,  1798. 

2  Diese  Berichte  XI,  246. 

3  Diese  Berichte  XV,  2028. 


296        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

0.1998  g  Substanz  gaben  0.4995  g  Kohlensaure  und  0.0988  g  Wasser. 
Ber.  fiir  C10H10O3N  Gefunden 

C    68.57  68-37  pCt. 

H      5-15  5.48    " 

Das  Acetylmandelsaurenitril,  das  man  mit  dem  gleichen 
Volumen  Ather  yerdiinnt  hat,  wurde  langsam  zu  einem  Uber- 
schusse  von  in  Ather  suspendirtem  Natrium  gefiigt,  worauf 
sich  unter  nur  sparlicher  Wasserstoffentwickelung  ein  gelb- 
licher  Niederschlag  bildet.  Zur  Vollendung  der  Reaction 
wurde  auf  dem  Wasserbade  wahrend  zwei  Stunden  erwarmt. 
Der  Niederschlag  besteht  theilweise  aus  einer  natriumhaltigen 
Verbindung  und  wurde  mit  verdiinnter  Schwefelsaure  behand- 
elt.  Der  unlosliche  Riickstand  liefert  aus  Alkohol  krystalli- 
sirt,  prismatische  Nadeln  von  constantem  Schmelzpunkt  bei 
134°.  Das  saure  Filtrat  enthielt  Blausaure  und  Essigsaure  und 
setzte  nach  einiger  Zeit  sehr  wenige  tafelformige  Krystalle  vom 
Schmelzpunkt  115°  ab,  deren  Zusammensetzung  aber  nicht 
ermittelt  werden  konnte. 

Als  Hauptproduct  wurde  die  bei  134°  schmelzende  Verbind- 
ung gewonnen.  Die  bei  der  Verbrennung  erhaltenen  Zahlen 
stimmen  annahernd  auf  Benzoin,  obgleich  durch  wiederholte 
Krystallisation  der  Schmelzpunkt  nicht  erhoht  werden  konnte. 

Gefunden 

Ber.  fiir  CUH12O2         I.                           II.  III. 

C    79.2                     78.55                      78.76  79.34  pCt. 

H    5.66                      5.93                        6.04  6.14    " 

Wie  Fischer1  fiir  das  Benzoin  angiebt,  reducirt  auch 
dieses  Product  Fehling'sche  Losung  in  der  Kalte,  und  es 
mag  die  Differenz  in  dem  Schmelzpunkt  wie  auch  den  Ver- 
brennungen  von  einer  nicht  zu  entfernenden  Verunreinigung 
herriihren. 

Uber  die  Amide  der  Mandelsaure  existiren  folgende  An- 
gaben : 

Z  i  n  i  n  2  hat  zuerst  durch  Einwirkung  starker  Sauren  auf 
blausaurehaltiges  Bittermandelol  eine  krystallisirende,  stick- 
stoffhaltige,  bei  194°  schmelzende  Verbindung  erhalten,  der  er 

1  Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  211,  215.  2  Jahresber.  1868,  626. 


DER  MANDELSAURE   UND   IHRES   NITRILS     297 

die  Zusammensetzung  2(C6H5.  COH)HCN  zuschrieb.  Als  er 
diesen  Korper  mit  Wasser  auf  180°  erhitzte,  gewann  er  das  von 
ihm  zum  ersten  Male  beschriebene  Amid  der  Mandelsaure  vom 
Schmelzpunkt  132°.  Spater  liessen  Tiemann  und  Fried- 
lander1  rauchende  Salzsaure  auf  reines  Mandelsaurenitril 
einwirken  und  gelangten  zu  einem  Producte,  das  sie  bei  190° 
schmelzend  beschrieben.  Eine  beigegebene  Verbrennung  wies 
in  vollkommener  Ubereinstimmung  auf  das  Mandelsaure- 
amid  hin. 

C.  Beyer2  st elite  dann  durch  Erhitzen  von  salzsaurem 
Phenyloxyacetimidoather  ein  Mandelsaureamid  dar,  das  bei 
132°  schmolz.  Indem  er  auf  die  Arbeit  von  Tiemann  und 
Friedlander3  zurtickkommt,  vermuthet  er  in  dieser  Ab- 
weichung  einen  Fall  von  Polymeric. 

In  letzter  Zeit  ist  von  J.  Biedermann4  eine  Mittheil- 
ung  erschienen,  wo  das  angebliche  a-Lacton  der  Mandelsaure 
mit  Ammoniak  behandelt  wird  und  auf  diese  Weise,  wie  die 
Analysen  zeigten,  das  Amid  der  Mandelsaure  erhalten  wurde, 
welches  aber  bei  190°  schmolz. 

Um  diese  Abweichungen  etwas  eingehender  zu  studiren, 
haben  wir  die  angefiihrten  Versuche  theilweise  wiederholt. 

Als  wir  nach  den  Angaben  von  Tiemann  und  Fried- 
lander  Mandelsaurenitril  mit  rauchender  Salzsaure  stehen 
liessen,  fanden  wir  den  gebildeten  Kuchen  aus  zwei  verschied- 
enen,  krystallisirten  Verbindungen  bestehend.  Durch  Krystal- 
lisation  aus  Alkohol  gewinnt  man  sogleich  farblose  Nadeln 
vom  Schmelzpunkt  194°,  wahrend  aus  der  Mutterlauge  eine 
bedeutend  leichter  losliche  Verbindung  in  rhombischen  Tafeln 
erhalten  wurde,  die  nach  mehrmaliger  Reinigung  aus  Alkohol 
constant  bei  132°  schmolzen  und  deren  Menge  mit  der  Starke 
der  Salzsaure  zunahm. 

Die  hoher  schmelzende  Verbindung  ist  in  kaltem  wie  in  heis- 
sem  Wasser,  Ather  und  kaltem  Alkohol  fast  unloslich,  leicht 
loslich  in  heissem  Alkohol.  Eine  Verbrennung  ergab  folgende 
Resultate,  die  fur  die  von  Zinin  gegebene  Zusammensetzung 
sprachen. 

1  Diese  Berichte  XIV,  1967.  2  Journ.  fur  prakt.  Chem.  1885,  385. 

3  Loc.  cit.  4  Diese  Berichte  XXIV,  4083. 


298        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

0.2394  g  Substanz  gaben  0.6595  g  Kohlensaure  und  0.1273  g  Wasser. 
0.4095  g  Substanz  gaben  22  ccm  Stickstoff  bei  763  mm  Druck. 
Berechnet  fur 

C6H5.CHOH 

C15H1302N                                 |  Gefunden 

CO.NH2 

C    75-3i                              63.57  75.13  PCt. 

H      5.40                                5.96  5.90  " 

N      5.90                                 9.47  6.18  " 

Wir  haben  nun  das  bei  190°  schmelzende  Amid  nach  den 
Angaben  von  Biedermann  darzustellen  versucht.  Der 
schwach  gefarbte  Krystallbrei  wurde  in  kochendem  Alkohol 
gelost,  woraus  sich  beim  Erkalten  als  einzelnes  Product  kleine 
rhombische  Tafeln  ausschieden,  deren  Schmelzpunkt  zu  132° 
statt,  wie  Biedermann  angiebt,  zu  190°  gefunden  wurde. 

Um  die  Zusammensetzung  des  dei  194°  schmelzenden  Kor- 
pers  zu  beweisen,  haben  wir  denselben  auf  folgendem  indirek- 
ten  Wege  dargestellt.  Das  Mandelsaureamid  wurde  mit  einer 
molecularen  Menge  von  Benzaldehyd  wahrend  zwei  Stunden 
auf  130°  erwarmt.  Nach  dem  Erkalten  wurde  durch  Waschen 
mit  Ather  etwas  unveranderter  Benzaldehyd  entfernt,  und 
die  farblose  Masse  aus  heissem  Alkohol  mehrmals  umkrystalli- 
sirt,  und  erwies  sich  als  identisch  mit  dem  vom  Zinin  erhalt- 
enen  Korper. 

Fiir  diese  Korper  sind  zwei  Constitutionen  moglich,  namlich : 

/°^\  XOH 

C6H5.CH^  ^CH.C6H5  oder  C6H5.CH( 

XCO-NHX  XCO.N:  CH.C6H5. 

Kommt  ihm  erstere  Structur  zu,  so  sollte  er  ein  Nitrosoderivat- 
liefern,  wahrend  eine  Verbindung  mit  der  letzten  Constitution 
leicht  ein  Acetylderivat  bilden  sollte.  Die  folgenden  Versuche 
sprechen  entschieden  fiir  die  zweite  Auffassung. 

Die  pulverisirte  Verbindung  wurde  in  Eisessig  suspendirt 
und  mit  salpetriger  Saure  behandelt,  es  gelang  jedoch  in  keinem 
Falle  die  Bildung  einer  Nitrosoverbindung  zu  konstatiren 
Wurde  sie  dagegen  mit  Essigsaureanhydrid  am  Riickflusskuh- 
ler  wahrend  einiger  Zeit  erhitzt,  so  entstand  eine  aus  Alkohol 
in  schongebildeten  Prismen  krystallisirende  Verbindung,  die 
bei  123°  schmilzt: 


DER  MANDELSAURE  UND   IHRES   NITRILS     299 

0.2580  g  Substanz  gaben  0.6842  g  Kohlensaure  und  0.1315  g  Wasser. 
Ber.  fur  C17H15O3N  Gefunden 

C          72.59  72.32  pCt. 

H  5-33  5-66 " 

In  der  Literatur  iiber  Mandelsaure  findet  sich  noch  ein  weit- 
erer  Punkt,  den  wir  in  Folgendem  aufzuklaren  gesucht  haben. 

Naquet  und  Louguinine1  haben  den  Mandelsau- 
reathylester  durch  Einwirkimg  von  Jodathylr  auf  das  Silbersalz 
dargestellt  und  als  einen  krystallinischen  Korper  vom  Schmelz- 
punkte  79°  beschrieben.  C.  Beyer2  hat  denselben  Ather 
durch  Spaltung  von  Phenoxyacetimidoather  beim  Erhitzen 
mit  Wasser  erhalten  und  als  eine  farblose,  in  Kaltemischung 
erstarrende  Fliissigkeit  beschrieben,  die  bei  250°  unzersetzt 
destillirt.  Vor  Allem  handelte  es  sich  darum,  nach  den  Angaben 
von  Naquet  und  Louguinine  die  bei  79°  schmelzende 
Verbindung  zu  bereiten.  Das  im  Vacuum  getrocknete  Silber- 
salz erhitzten  wir  im  geschlossenen  Rohre  bei  100°  wahrend  12 
Stunden  mit  einem  geringen  Ueberschuss  von  Jodathyl.  Das 
Reactionsproduct  wurde  mit  Ather  ausgezogen  und  der  nach 
dem  Verdampfen  des  Athers  bleibende  gefarbte  Riickstand 
destillirt.  Schon  nach  der  zweiten  Destination  erhielten  wir 
ein  vollkommen  farbloses,  stark  lichtbrechendes,  Ol,  in 
Ubereinstimmung  mit  den  Angaben  von  Beyer. 

Nach  einiger  Zeit  aber  erstarrte  die  ganze  Masse  krystal- 
linisch.  Durch  Umkrystallisiren  aus  Petrolather  wurden  sehr 
feine  seidenglanzende  Nadelchen  erhalten,  die  bei  34°  constant 
schmolzen  und  deren  Zusammensetzung  durch  folgende  Ver- 
brennung  bestatigt  wurde. 

Ber.  fur  C6H5CH  OH 

|  Gefunden 

COO  C2H5 

C      66.67  66.50  pCt. 

H      6.67  6.73     " 

Es  gelang  uns  nich,  eine  Verbindung  vom  Schmelzpunkt  79° 
darzustellen,  sodass  es  scheint,  als  ob  N  a  q  u  e  t  und  Lougui- 
nine nicht  den  Mandelsaureather,  sondern  wohl  ein  anderes 
Derivat  der  Saure  in  Handen  gehabt  haben. 

1  Bull.  Soc.  Chim.  1866,  5,  255.  2  J.  prakt.  Chem.  1885,  389. 


ZUR    KENNTNISS    DER    ADDITION    VON     BROM 
UND    CHLOR   ZU   FESTER    CROTONSAURE  * 

NACHDEM  J.  WiSLiCENUS2  die  Configuration  der  a- 
Brom  und  Chlorcrotonsaure  vermittelst  seiner  Hypothese  ent- 
wickelt  hatte,  wurde  von  A.  Michael3  darauf  hingewiesen, 
dass  bei  der  consequenten  Anwendung  dieser  Annahme  auf 
bekannte  Thatsachen  nicht  weniger  als  drei  verschiedene  Con- 
figurationen  fur  jede  dieser  Sauren  gleich  berechtigt  waren.  In 
seiner  speciellen  Arbeit  liber  die  Crotonsauren  4  und  seiner 
,,Antikritik"  5  kommt  Wislicenus  auf  die  discutirte  Frage 
zuriick,  und  sucht  auf  Grund  ausgedehnter  Versuchsreihen 
iiber  die  Addition  von  Brom  und  Chlor  zu  fester  Crotonsaure 
unter  verschiedenen  Bedingungen  und  unter  Aufstellung  der 
neuen,  fur  diesen  Zweck  ersonnenen  Annahme  der  ,,unfer- 
tigen"  Molekiile 6  seine  friiheren  Erklarungen  aufrecht  zu 
halten.  Wollte  man  aber  auch  der  neuen  Hypothese  zu- 
stimmen,  und  die  angefuhrten  experimentellen  Versuche  als 
zutreffend  ansehen,  so  waren  die  Configurationen  von  W  i  s- 
1  i  c  e  n  u  s  selbst  dann  nicht  durchfuhrbar,  denn  er  hat  bei 
seinen  Betrachtungen  iibersehen,  dass  es  sich  bei  den  betref- 
fenden  Reactionen  nicht  um  freie  Sauren,  sondern  um  Salze 
derselben  handelt,  und  seine  Annahmen  standen  direct  im 
Widerspruch  mit  sehr  einfachen  und  bekannten  Auffassungen 
analoger  Reactionen.7 

Nach  Wislicenus  sind  die  a-Brom-  und  die  a- Chlorcro- 
tonsaure ,,abnorme"  Zersetzungsprodukte  der  a/?-Dibrom-, 
resp.  Dichlorbuttersaure,  und  verdanken  ihre  Entstehung 

1  Printed  in  the  Journal  fur  praktische  Chemie,  neue  Folge,  Band  46,  273  ; 
also  in  pamphlet,  Leipzig,  Johann  Ambrosius  Earth  (n.  d.). 

2  Rauml.  Anord.  S.  41-45.      3  Dies.  Journ.  [2]  38,  7-11. 
4  Ann.  Chem.  248,  281.  5  Das.  S.  344. 

8  Das.  S.  328.  7  A.  Michael,  dies.  Journ.  [2]  40,  30-34. 


FESTER   CROTONSAURE  301 

dem  Einfluss  der  Warme,  tmd  er  behauptete,  dass  rein  a/?- 
Dichlorbuttersaure  in  der  Kalte  ,,keine  Spur"  von  a-Chlor- 
crotonsaure  liefert.  Es  ist  aber  oben  bewiesen  worden,  dass 
diese  Dichlorbuttersaure  eine  betrachliche  Menge  von  a-Chlor- 
crotonsaure  in  der  Kalte  liefert,  und  dass  das  relative  Bildungs- 
verhaltniss  derselben  auch  in  der  Warme  das  gleiche  ist.  Es 
war  kein  Grund  vorhanden,  die  W  i  s  1  i  c  e  n  u  s'  schen  Ver- 
suche  liber  die  Addition  bei  erhohter  Temperatur  zu  wieder- 
holen,  weil  seinen,  unter  einander  nicht  iibereinstimmenden^ 
Resultaten  eigentlich  keine  Beweiskraft  zukommt,  und  schon 
die  bedeutend  grossere  Chlorwasserstoffentwicklung,  die  unter 
solchen  Bedingungen  vor  sich  geht,  mahnte  gegen  das  Heran- 
ziehen  solcher  Versuche  fur  theoretische  Schliisse.  In  Betreff 
des  vereinzelten  Versuchs  der  Bromaddition  ohne  Abkiihlen 
wird  unten  nachgewiesen,  dass  demselben  kein  Wert  beizu- 
legen  ist.  Dagegen  war  es  von  Interesse,  auf  die  W  i  s  1  i- 
c  e  n  u  s'  schen  Versuche  iiber  den  Einfluss  des  mehr  oder 
weniger  schnellen  Zusatzes  des  Halogens  auf  die  relative  Men- 
gen  der  gebildeten  alloisomerischen  a/?-Dihalogenbuttersauren 
naher  einzugehen. 

Es  wurden  zuerst  qualitative  Versuche  angestellt  iiber  die 
Rolle  welche  das  Licht  bei  der  Bromaddition  spielt,  und  in- 
wiefern  das  olige  Nebenprodukt,  welches  Wislicenus  fur 
allo-a/?-Dibrombuttersaure  gehalten  hat,  hiermit  in  Verbin- 
dung  steht.  10  Grm.  reine  feste  Crotonsaure  wurden  in  zwan- 
zigfacher  Menge  gereinigten  SchwefelkohlenstofTs  gelost,  das 
Gefass  an  einen  dunkeln  Ort  gestellt,  und  tropfenweise  die 
theoretische  Menge  mit  CS2  verdiinnten  Broms  (18,6  Grm.) 
zugesetzt.  Gewohnlich,  selbst  im  schwach  zerstreuten  Licht, 
bemerkt  man,  dass  ein  nicht  unbedeutender  Antheil  des  Broms 
sogleich  beim  Eintritt  in  die  Losung  sich  entfarbt,  aber  bei 
diesem  Versuch  war  von  einer  Entfarbung  nichts  zu  sehen; 
nach  Zusatz  von  wenigen  Tropfen  der  Bromlosung  hatte  die 
Crotonsaurelosung  die  Farbe  des  Broms  angenommen.  Nach- 
dem  alles  Brom  zugesetzt  war,  blieb  die  Losung  mehrere  Tage 
an  demselben  Ort,  und  da  beim  Stehen  die  Farbe  der  Losung 
nicht  abnahm,  so  wurde  das  Losungsmittel  verjagt  und  die 
nach  langerem  Stehen  abgeschiedenen  Krystalle  von  dem 


302        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

dicken  6l  getrennt.  Sehr  bemerkbar  war  die  Bildung  von 
Bromwasserstoff,  und  zwar  in  bedeutender  Menge,  was  auf 
eine  Substitutionswirkung  des  Halogens  hindeutete.  Die  Kry- 
stalle  wogen  17  Grm.  und  bestanden  aus  bei  87°  schmelzender 
a/?-D  ib  r  o  mb  u  1 1  e  r  sa  u  r  e.  Das  Ol  hatte  einen  sehr 
iiblen,  an  Chlorschwefel  erinnernden  Geruch,  und  enthielt 
noch  a/?-Dibrombuttersaure,  da  durch  Behandeln  desselben 
mit  uberschiissigem  Kali  a-Bromcrotonsaure  gewonnen  wer- 
den  konnte.  Die  Addition  von  Brom  zu  Crotonsaure  im  halb 
dunkeln  Licht  wurde  mehrfach  unter  etwas  abgeanderten  Be- 
dingungen  wiederholt,  und  stets  ein  ahnliches  Resultat  erhalten. 
Es  wurden  nun  5  Grm.  Saure  in  CS2  gelost  und  1,9  Grm.  Brom 
(etwa  ein  Fiinftel  der  Theorie)  auf  eimnal  zugesetzt,  und  die 
Flasche  in  halb  dunkles  Licht  gestellt.  Nach  zehnstiindigem 
Stehen  besass  die  Losung  noch  die  Farbe  des  Broms,  und  sie 
wurde  nun  in  helles  zerstreutes  Licht  gestellt,  wobei  sogleich 
bemerkt  wurde,  dass  eine  Entfarbung  der  Losung,  und  zwar 
zuerst  am  Boden  der  Flasche,  anting.  Nach  kurzer  Zeit  war 
die  Losung  ganz  entfarbt,  und  es  wurde  nun  jedesmal  ein  neues 
Fiinftel  Brom  erst  nach  Entfarbung  der  Losung  zugesetzt. 
Bromwasserstoff  hatte  sich  auch  bei  diesem  Versuch  gebildet, 
aber  in  weit  geringerer  Menge,  als  bei  den  vorangehenden 
Versuchen.  Das  Additionsprodukt  wog  14,1  Grm.  (Theorie 
14,3  Grm.)  und  bestand  zum  weitaus  grosstenTheil  aus  harten 
Krystallen  neben  sehr  wenig  Ol.  Bei  einem  anderen  Versuch 
wurde  die  Losung  auf  —  17°  abgekiihlt,  dem  hellen  zerstreuten 
Licht  ausgesetzt  und  nun  auf  einmal  die  nothige  Menge  mit 
CS2  verdiinnten  und  ebenfalls  abgekiihlten  Broms  hinzuge- 
fiigt.  Bei  diesem  Versuch  wurden  14  Grm.  einer  harten  Kry- 
stallmasse  erhalten,  ohne  dass  selbst  eine  Spur  des  Ols  ge- 
bildet worden  war.  Ein  weiterer  Versuch  wurde  nun  unter 
Anwendung  von  reinem  Tetrachlorkohlenstoff  als  Losungs- 
mittel  im  hellen  Licht  und  unter  Abkiihlung  ausgefuhrt,  und 
die  theoretische  Menge  des  Additionsprodukts,  ohne  Bildung 
einer  Spur  des  Ols,  und  nur  von  sehr  wenig  Bromwasserstoff, 
erhalten. 

Nachdem  nun  die  Bedingungen  zu  einer  glatten  Addition 
ermittelt  waren,  konnte  ich  zur  quantitativen  Unter- 


FESTER   CROTONSAURE  303 

suchung  des  Vorganges  iibergehen.  Die  kaufliche  Crotonsaure 
ist  stets  etwas  verunreinigt,  und  wird  am  leichtesten  gereinigt 
durch  Umkrystallisiren  aus  heissem  Ligroin  und  durch  Destil- 
lation  der  Krystalle,  indem  man  die  zwischen  180° — 181° 
siedende  Fraction  besonders  auffangt.  Dieser  Antheil  schmilzt 
bei  72°,  obwohl  er  schon  etwa  ein  Grad  niedriger  zu  erweichen 
anfangt.  Um  liberhaupt  vergleichbare  Resultate  liber  den 
Einfluss  des  schnellen  oder  langsamen  Zutritts  des  Broms  zu 
erhalten,  muss  man  vor  Allem  dafiir  sorgen,  dass  die  zu  ver- 
gleichenden  Produkte  zur  gleichen  Zeit  und  unter  ganz  glei- 
chen  Bedingungen  aufgearbeitet  werden.  Es  wurde  daher  bei 
jeder  der  fiinf  Versuchsreihen  der  Versuch,  wobei  die  ganze 
Menge  des  Halogens  auf  einmal  zugesetzt  wurde,  erst  ange- 
stellt,  nachdem  das  letzte  Fiinf tel  des  Broms  bei  dem  Versuch 
mit  langsamem  Bromzusatz  zugefiigt  war,  und  nach  Entfar- 
bung  die  Produkte  der  beiden  Versuche  gleichzeitig  und  unter 
absolut  gleichen  Bedingungen  aufgearbeitet.  Die  Verhaltnisse 
der  ersten  Versuchsreihe  werden  eingehender  beschrieben, 
und  zu  den  anderen  nur  dann  Bemerkungen  gemacht,  wenn 
abweichende  Resultate  bemerkt  worden  sind. 

I.  3  Grm.  Crotonsaure  wurden  in  45  Grin,  reinem  CC14 
gelost,  die  Losung  in  Eis  abgekiihlt,  und  auf  einmal  5,6  Grm. 
Brom  (Theorie  5,58  Grm.)  zugesetzt.  Die  Losung  wurde  nun 
den  directen  Sonnenstrahlen  ausgesetzt,  wobei  fast  sogleich 
die  Bildung  einer  weissen  Wolke  von  Bromwasserstofl  im 
obern  Theil  der  Flasche  zu  bemerken  war,  die  nach  kurzem 
Stehen  verschwand.  Die  stets  abgekuhlte  Losung  war  in  we- 
niger  als  einer  Stunde  ganz  entfarbt,  und  beim  Offnen  der 
Flasche  konnte  man  erst  beim  Ausgiessen  der  Fliissigkeit  eine 
Spur  Bromwasserstoff  bemerken.  Der  TetrachlorkohlenstofI 
wurde  unter  etwa  15  Mm.  Druck  zuerst  bei  gewohnlicher  Tem- 
peratur  abdestillirt,  zuletzt  kurze  Zeit  auf  35°  erwarmt,  und 
die  riickstandige,  ganz  feste  sowie  weisse,  krystallinische 
Masse  mit  reinem  Ather  in  eine  tarirte  Krystallisirschale 
gespiilt.  Die  Schale  wurde  im  Vacuum  iiber  geschmolzenem 
CaCl2  und  Paraffin  urtter  bestandigem  Absaugen  gelinde  auf 
und  nieder  bewegt,  wobei  der  Ather  in  kurzer  Zeit  vertrieben 
wurde,  und  die  Krystallmasse  iiber  CaCl2  und  Paraffin,  nicht 


304        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

liber  H2SO4,  da  dadurch  ein  nicht  unbebeutender  Verlust  an 
Dibromsaure  stattfindet,  so  lange  in  einem  partiellen  Vacuum 
gelassen,  bis  nach  zwolfsttindigem  Stehen  ein  Verlust  von  nur 
etwa  0,005  Grm.  zu  bemerken  war.  Das  Produkt,  eine  ganz 
harte  Krystallmasse,  wurde  mit  10  Grm.  Wasser  iibergossen, 
in  Eiswasser  gestellt  und  allmahlich  so  viel  einer  normalen 
Kalilosung  zugetropft,  dass  auf  i  Mol.  der  Saure  2  J  Mol.  KOH 
kamen.  Nach  zwolfstiindigem  Stehen  in  der  Kalte  wurde  mit 
20  procent.  H2SO4  stark  angesauert,  und  fiinfmal  mit  reinem 
Ather  ausgezogen.  Da  Wislicenus  nicht  anfiihrt,  ob  er 
bei  seinen  Versuchen  den  atherischen  Auszug  getrocknet  hat, 
so  wurden  bei  dieser  Versuchsreihe  derselbe  ohne  Weiteres 
gelinde  erwarmt,  bis  der  grosste  Theil  des  Athers  abdestillirt 
war,  der  abdestillirte  Ather  aus  einem  anderen  Siedekolben 
nochmals  uberdestillirt,  da  sehr  wenig  Bromcrotonsaure  bei 
dem  ersten  Abdestilliren  mit  iibergeht,  und  die  atherische  Lo- 
sung,  wie  schon  oben  beschrieben  worden  ist,  in  das  Vacuum 
gestellt.  Das  feste  Gemisch  der  a-Bromcrotonsauren  wurde 
in  100  Ccm.  absoluten  Alkohols  gelost,  und  die  Losung  sof  ort 
mit  einer  alkoholischen  Losung  von  Kalihydrat  neutralisirt. 
Nach  zwolfstiindigem  Stehen  wurde  von  dem  abgeschiedenen, 
von  Wislicenus  als  rein  angenommenen  a-bromcroton- 
sauren  Kalium  abfiltrirt,  der  Niederschlag  bei  100°  getrocknet, 
und  das  alkoholische  Filtrat  zur  Trockne  eingedampft  und 
ebenfalls  bei  100°  getrocknet. 

Bei  dem  zweiten  Versuch  in  dieser  Reihe  wurde  das  gleiche 
Verhaltniss  von  Saure  und  Losungsmittel  angewandt,  die 
Losung  auf  ungefahr  10° — 12°  gehalten  und  nach  jedem  Tage 
ein  Fiinftel  der  Brommenge  auf  einmal  zugesetzt.  Die  Flasche 
wurde  in  so  zerstreutes  Licht  gestellt,  dass  die  Addition  nur 
langsam  vor  sich  ging.  Bis  zur  letzten  Addition  hat  sich  jedes- 
mal  die  Losung  ganz  entfarbt,  und  eine  fast  farblose  Losung 
wurde  auch  zuletzt  erhalten,  als  die  Losung  unter  Abktihlung 
J  Stunde  dem  Sonnenlicht  ausgesetzt  wurde.  Es  wurde  die 
Bildung  einer  sehr  kleinen  Menge  eines  unloslichen  6ls  be- 
merkt,  dessen  Entstehung  beim  ersten  Versuch  ausblieb ;  auch 
hatte  sich  bedeutend  mehr,  obwohl  nicht  sehr  viel,  Brom- 
wasserstoff  gebildet. 


FESTER  CROTONSAURE  305 

II.  Bei  der  zweiten  Versuchsreihe  wiederholten  sich  die- 
selben  Erscheinungen,  und  der  einzige  Unterschied  in  der 
Bearbeitung  der  Additionsprodukte  bestand  darin,  dass  die 
atherischen  Losungen  der  Sauren,  wie  auch  in  den  folgenden 
Reihen,  mit  wasserfreiem  Natriumsulfat  getrocknet  waren, 
wobei  zu  bemerken  ist,  dass  man  das  Salz  mehrmals  mit  Ather 
auswaschen  muss,  da  kleine  Mengen  der  Saure  leicht  zuriick- 
gehalten  werden. 

III.  Die  dritte  Reihe  wurde  bei  sehr  nebeligem  Wetter  aus- 
geftihrt,  und  obwohl  die  Losung  beim  ersten  Versuche  direct 
vor  dem  Fenster  stand,  und  zwar  bei  etwa  10° — 12°,  vergingen 
vier  Tage,  bevor  die  sonst  in  weniger  als  einer  Stunde  stattfind- 
ende  Entfarbung  erfolgte.    Dieselbe  Erscheinung  wurde  beim 
zweiten  Versuch  beobachtet;  es  war  z.  B.  am  dritten  Tag  die 
Losung  noch  sehr  stark  von  freiem  Brom  gefarbt,  aber  als  dann 
blauer  Himmel  sich  zeigte,  fand  die  Entfarbung  in  kurzer  Zeit 
statt.    Bei  diesen  Versuchen  schieden  sich  aus  dem  alkohol- 
ischen,  allo-bromcrotonsaures  Natrium  enthaltenden  Filtrate 
wurfelformige  Krystalle  aus,  die  aus  Bromkalium  bestanden, 
eine  Erscheinung,  die  ich  in  keiner  anderen  Reihe  beobachtete; 
wohl  aber  ist  zu  bemerken,  dass  das  Gemisch  der  Bromcro- 
tonsauren  vor   der  ( Neutralisation   durch   einen  Zufall  vier 
Stunden  lang  in  alkoholischer  Losung  blieb. 

IV.  und  V.    Die  vierte  und  die  funfte  Reihe  verliefen  ganz 
wie  schon  beschrieben  worden  ist,  es  wurde  stets  ein  ganz  festes 
Additionsprodukt  erhalten.   Bei  alien  diesen  Versuchen  zeigte 
sich,  dass  die  Addition  am  glattesten  vor  sich  ging,  wenn  man 
die  stark  abgekiihlte  Losung  direct  in  das  Sonnenlicht  stellte, 
und  sie  bestatigten  die  friihere  Beobachtung,  dass,  je  schneller 
dieselbe  stattfand,  desto  weniger  Bromwasserstoff  gebildet  wird. 


3o6        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


TABELLE  I.    RESULTATE  DER  FUNF   VERSUCHSREIHEN 


Versuchsreihen. 

A  rt  des  Brom- 
zusatzes. 

Dibrom- 
butter- 
sduren. 

Monobrom- 
croton- 
sdiiren. 

odrrom- 
croton- 
saures 
Kalium. 

allo-a-brom- 
croton- 
saures 
Kalium. 

Ge- 

sammt- 
menge  d. 
Kalium- 
salze. 

Theorie 



Grm. 
8,5814 

Grm. 
5*7556 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Grm. 
7,0814 

1      1 

auf  einmal 
portionsweise 

8,4036 
8,3555 

5*6274 

0,6741 

6,1847 
5*9277 

6,8224 
6,6018 

„.     { 

auf  einmal 
portionsweise 

8,5218 
8,4072 

5*559i 
5>4448 

0,4616 
0,495! 

6,3863 
5*8176 

6,9479 
6,3122 

III. 

auf  einmal 
portionsweise 

8,4878 

sS 

0,4160 
0,4486 

6,6301 
6,  01  80 

7*0347 
6,4666 

IV.        { 

auf  einmal 
portionsweise 

8,4483 
8,3815 

5*6439 

0,6660 
0,4855 

6,0875 
6,0072 

6,7538 
6,4927 

v-   { 

auf  einmal 
portionsweise 

8,5408 
8,3110 

5,6086 
5*5418 

0,4983 
0,5131 

6,4186 
6,3878 

6,9169 
6,9009 

TABELLE  II.      BERECHNETE   WERTE  AUS   OBIGEN  RESULTATEN 


Versuchs- 
reihen. 

Relative  Verhdltnisse 

des  erhaltenen. 

Verhdltnisse  des 

A  ~4   Jar- 

a.-bromcrotons. 

./i  rt  des 
Bromzusatzes. 

a.-brom- 
crotons. 
Kalium. 

allo-a.-brom- 
crotons. 
Kalium. 

Kalium 
auf  100  Thle. 
theoret.A  usbeute. 

I. 

1 

auf  einmal 

9,34 

90,66 

9,00 

1 

portionsweise 

10,21 

89,79 

9,51 

II. 

\ 

auf  einmal 

6,64 

93,36 

6,52 

i 

portionsweise 

7,84 

92,l6 

6,99 

f 

auf  einmal 

5,91 

94,09 

5,o8 

• 

{ 

portionsweise 

6,93 

93,17 

6,32 

TV 

1 

auf  einmal 

9,86 

90,I4 

9,40 

A  V  . 

1 

portionsweise 

7,47 

92,53 

6,85 

V. 

I 

auf  einmal 

7,20 

92,80 

7,03 

( 

portionsweise 

7,43 

92,57 

7,24 

FESTER   CROTONSAURE 


307 


TABELLE  III.  ANALYTISCHE  RESULTATE 


Kaliu  mgehalt. 

Veruschs- 
reihen. 

Art  des 
Bromzusatzes. 

A  ngew. 
Menge 
a-brom- 
crotons. 

Erhalt. 
Menge 
KzSOi. 

A  ngew- 
Menge 
allo-a.- 
bromcro- 
tonsaures 

Erhalt. 
Menge 
KtSOt. 

a.-brom- 
crotons. 

allo-a.- 
brom- 
cro- 

j.Tltc 

Kalium. 

Kalium. 

Kalium 

tons. 
Ka- 

lium. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Proc. 

Proc. 

Theorie 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

19,20 

19,20 

I          1 

auf  einmal 

0,2157 

0,1  060 

0,2810 

0,1273 

22,06 

20,32 

I 

portionweise 

o,35oi 

0,1881 

o,43  IJ 

0,1984 

24,12 

20,63 

II          1 

auf  einmal 

o,i575 

0,0693 

0,4897 

0,2109 

19,75 

19,34 

I 

portionweise 

0,1385 

0,0605 

0,2205 

0,0965 

19,61 

19,64 

,„.    j 

auf  einmal 
portionweise 

0,0827 
0,0915 

0,0362 
0,0405 

0,6318 

0,7025 

o,2795 
o,3235 

19,65 
19,86 

19,85 
20,67 

IV        { 

auf  einmal 

0,1385 

0,0660 

0,9101 

0,4052 

2i,39 

19,98 

I 

portionweise 

0,1010 

0,0445 

0,3295 

0,1480 

19,78 

20,16 

V         { 

auf  einmal 

0,2142 

0,0939 

0,2758 

0,1215 

19,68 

19,76 

I 

Dortionweise 

0,2713 

0,1191 

0,1849 

0,0837 

19,73 

20,32 

Zu  diesen  analytischen  Resultaten  ist  zu  bemerken,  dass 
sammtliche  Kaliumsalze  Spuren  von  Kaliumbromid  enthielten, 
indessen  war  fast  stets  etwas  mehr  in  den  a-bromcrotonsauren 
als  in  den  allo-bromcrotonsauren  Salzen;  in  verhaltrrissmassig 
namhaften  Spuren  kommt  es  in  den  beiden  a- Salzen  von  Ver- 
suchsreihe  I  und  in  nicht  unbedeutender  Menge  im  Salz  von 
dem  erst  en  Versuch  der  Reihe  IV  vor.  In  BetrefT  dieser  letzten 
Versuche  ist  hervorzuheben,  dass  durch  ein  Versehen  die 
alkoholische  Losung  des  Gemisches  von  den  a-Bromcroton- 
sauren  etwa  2  Stunden  vor  der  Neutralisation  mit  Kali  sich 
iiberlassen  wurde  und  man  schon  mit  blossem  Auge  die  wur- 
felformigen  Krystalle  von  Kaliumbromid  im  Niederschlag 
erkennen  konnte.  Wahrscheinlich  ist  ein  kleiner  Theil  der 
Sauren  verestert  worden,  so  dass  dieser  Versuch  eigentlich 
von  keinem  grossen  Wert  ist.  Auch  konnten  Spuren  von 
kohlensaurem  Kalium  in  einigen  der  Niederschlage  nachge- 
wiesen  werden,  scheinbar  mehr  in  den  allo-a-,  als  in  dena-Brom- 


308        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

salzen;  vielleicht  riihrt  dies  zum  Theil  von  dem  unvermeid- 
lichen  geringen  Ueberschuss  von  Kali  her,  das  man  zur  Neu- 
tralisation benutzt.  Merkwiirdiger  Weise  war  aber  viel  mehr 
Kohlensaure  nachweisbar  in  alien  Salzen  der  ersten  Ver- 
suchsreihe  als  in  den  Salzen  der  anderen  Reihe,  womit  wohl  der 
hohe  Kaliumgehalt  dieser  Salze  in  Verbindung  steht. 

Wir  sind  nun  im  Stande  zu  erklaren,  in  welcher  Weise  W  i  s- 
1  i  c  e  n  u  s  in  Betreff  der  Bildung  von  ,,abnormen"  Produkten 
bei  der  Addition  von  Brom  zu  Crotonsaure  sich  tauschte,  und 
weshalb  seine  hierauf  beziiglichen  Versuche  fehlerhaft  sind. 
Er  hat  zuerst  Versuche  mit  einander  verglichen,  die  nicht 
unter  absolut  gleichen  Bedingungen  ausgefuhrt  war  en,  und 
namentlich  ist  in  seinen  Arbeiten  kein  Anzeichen  vorhanden, 
dass  er  den  Einfluss  des  Lichtes  auf  den  Additionsvorgang 
irgendwie  erkannt,  ober  bei  seinen  Versuchen  in  Betracht 
gezogen  hat.  Er  hat  ferner  Schwefelkohlenstoff  angewandt, 
ein  Losungsmittel,  das  meistens  zu  quantitativen  Versuchen 
mit  Brom  wenig  empfehlenswerth  ist;  denn,  wie  oben  gezeigt 
wurde,  bildet  sich  im  schwachen  Licht  stets  ein  schwefel- 
haltiges  6l,  das  namentlich  entsteht,  wenn  man  das  Reagens 
nicht  sehr  sorgfaltig  reinigt,  und  die  Addition  sehr  langsam 
vor  sich  gehen  lasst.  Die  Verhaltnisse  bei  der  Bromaddition 
waren  gerade  geeignet,  um  solche  Tauschungen  als  wahrschein- 
liche  Beweise  erscheinen  zu  lassen,  denn  die  relative  Menge 
der  entstehenden  a-Bromcrotonsaure  ist  nur  gering,  so  dass 
eine  kleine  Gewichtsvermehrung  der  Niederschlage  als  be- 
weisend  fur  die  Annahme  von  ,,abnormen"  Produkten  und 
,,unfertigen  Molekiilen"  angesehen  werden  konnte.  Es  ist 
sicherlich  aber  schwer  zu  verstehen,  wie  Wislicenus  sich 
begniigen  konnte,  eine  an  sich  so  unwahrscheinliche  Hypothese 
aufzustellen  ohne  zu  versuchen,  die  hypothetischen  ,,hoch- 
molekularen"  Produkte  zu  isoliren,  oder  wenigstens  zu  er- 
mitteln,  ob  die  geringe  scheinbare  Zunahme  der  a-Bromcro- 
tonsaurebildung  nicht  andersartigen  Verunreinigungen  zu- 
zuschreiben  ist.  Hatte  er  dies  versucht,  so  wiirde  er  gefunden 
haben,  dass  man  bei  richtig  angestellten  Versuchen  nur  die 
bei  106°  schmelzende  a-Bromcrotonsaure  daraus  isoliren 
konnte. 


FESTER  CROTONSAURE  309 

Uberblickt  man  die  in  den  obigen  Tabellen  zusammen- 
gefassten  Resultate,  so  wird  man  sofort  erkennen,  dass  absolut 
kein  Grund  vorhanden  1st,  die  Bildung  von  ,,abnormen"  Pro- 
dukten  oder  ,,unfertigen"  und  ,,hochmolekularen"  Molekiilen 
bei  der  Addition  von  Brom  zu  Crotonsaure  anzunehmen.  Die 
geringfiigigen  Differenzen  in  den  procentigen  Verhaltnissen 
der  gebildeten  a-Bromcrotonsaure  bei  schnellem  oder  langsam- 
em  Bromzutritt  liegen  ganz  innerhalb  der  Grenzen  von  den 
bei  solchen  Versuchen  unvermeidlichen  experimentellen  Feh- 
lern,  wie  aus  den  bei  verschiedenen  Versuchsreihen  erhaltenen 
Zahlen  klar  hervorgeht.  Bei  solchen  Versuchen,  wie  in  Ver- 
suchsreihe  I,  wo  eine  abnorme  Menge  von  a-Bromcrotonsaure 
scheinbar  gebildet  wurde,  ist  das  Verhaltniss  zu  gross,  unab- 
hangig  von  der  Art  des  Bromzusatzes,  und  es  handelt  sich  hier, 
wie  die  Analysen  zeigten,  nicht  um  eine  grossere  Menge  von 
Saure,  sondern  um  Verunreinigungen,  die  wohl  grosstentheils 
aus  Mineralsalzen  bestehen.  Der  oben  angefiihrte  Beweis, 
dass  bei  der  Zersetzung  von  reiner  a/?-Dibrombuttersaure 
schon  etwa  4%  an  a-Bromcrotonsaure  gebildet  werden,  ver- 
bunden  mit  meinen  Resultaten,  wonach  etwa  7%  dieser  Saure 
bei  der  Zersetzung  des  rohen  Additionsproduktes  entstehen, 
machen  es  wahrscheinlich,  dass  ungefahr  3%  allo-a/?-Dibrom- 
crotonsaure  als  normales  Produkt  der  Addition  von  Brom  zu 
Crotonsaure  gebildet  werden.  Es  schien  mir  unnothig,  den 
vereinzelten  Versuch,  den  Wislicenus  durch  Vermischen 
bedeutender  Mengen  Brom  und  Crotonsaure  in  Schwefel- 
kohlenstofflosung,  wobei  die  Fliissigkeit  20  Minuten  lang 
kochte,  zu  wiederholen,  denn  ein  solcher  Versuch  konnte  un- 
moglich  regelrecht  sein,  wie  man  schon  an  der  relativ  grossen 
Menge  von  6l,  welches  Wislicenus  erhalten  hat,  er- 
kennt. 

Merkwlirdiger  Weise  hat  Wislicenus  bei  alien  seinen 
Versuchen  ubersehen,  dass  immer  BromwasserstofT  entsteht, 
und  zwar,  wenn  man  wie  bei  einem  solchen  Versuch  verfahrt, 
in  nicht  unbedeutender  Menge;  obwohl  er  so  entschienen  gegen 
verschiedene  Forscher,  die  bei  anderen  Untersuchungen  die 
Bildung  desselben  nicht  hervorgehoben  haben,  aufgetreten 
ist. 


3io        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Die  Versuche  von  Wislicenus  liber  die  schnelle  oder 
verlangsamte  Addition  von  Chlor  zu  Crotonsaure  ergaben 
Resultate,  die  unter  einander  so  differirten,  dass  denselben 
schon  damals  eigentlich  keine  Beweiskraft  zugemessen  werden 
konnte;  ich  habe  trotzdem  einige  Versuche  iiber  diese  Reac- 
tion angestellt,  woraus  hervorgeht,  dass  es  bei  richtig  ange- 
stellten  Versuchen,  beim  Chlor  wie  beim  Brom,  nicht  darauf 
ankommt,  in  welcher  Weise  der  Zusatz  geschieht. 

Vorlaufige  Versuche  zeigten,  dass  die  Addition  meistens 
besser  vor  sich  geht  in  Gegenwart  von  wenig  gereinigtem 
Schwefelkohlenstoff ,  unter  Abkiilung,  in  hellem  diffusem  Licht. 
Die  Addition  von  Chlor  ist  ein  so  leicht  vor  sich  gehender 
Process,  dass  es  nicht  nothig  ist  im  Sonnenlicht  zu  ar- 
beiten. 

I.  3  Grm.  pulverisirte  Crotonsaure  wurde  mit  etwas  Schwe- 
felkohlenstoff ubergossen,  auf — 17°  abgeklihlt,  und  die  berech- 
nete  Menge,  ebenfalls  abgekiihltes  Chlor,  in  Tetrachlorkohl- 
enstoff  gelost,  zugesetzt,  indem  die  Flasche  im  hellem  diffu- 
sem Licht  stand.    Die  Addition  ging  sehr  schnell  vor  sich, 
und  war  nach  einigen  Minuten  vollendet.  Obwohl  eine  geringe 
Menge  Chlorlosung  noch  zugesetzt  wurde,  zeigte  die  Losung, 
selbst  nach  1  Stunde,  die  Anwesenheit  einer  Spur  freien  Halo- 
gens und  nur  Spuren  Chlorwasserstoffsaure.   Die  Bearbeitung 
des  Additionsproduktes  geschah  ganz  wie  schon  bei  den  Ver- 
suchen mit  Brom  beschrieben  ist.    Die  gebildete,  rein  weisse 
Dichlorbuttersaure  war,  bis  auf  eine  Spur  Ol,  ganz  fest. 

II.  Vorangehender  Versuch  wurde  zur  gleichen  Zeit  an- 
gestellt, als  die  letzte  Portion  Chlorlosung  bei  diesem  Versuch 
zugesetzt  worden  war.    Der  Unterschied  bestand  darin,  dass 
bei  diesem  Versuch  die  Chlormenge  in  Portionen  von  je  ^  in 
5  Tagen  zugesetzt  wurde,  und  die  abgekiihlte  Flasche  in  be- 
deutend  schwacheres  Licht  gestellt  wurde,  damit  die  Addition 
nicht  so  schnell  vor  sich  gehe.   Auch  hier  bekam  man,  bis  auf 
eine  sehr  geringe  Menge,  ein  festes  Additionsprodukt,  obwohl 
die  gebildete  Salzsaure  etwas  bedeutender  war,  als  bei  dem 
vorigen  Versuch. 

III.  Wei  bei  II  das  Chlor  schnell,  und  IV.  in  5  Portionen  wie 
bei  II  zugesetzt.     Die  Bearbeitung  dieser  Versuche  geschah 


FESTER  CROTONSAURE 


nicht  zu  gleicher  Zeit,  wie  dies  bei  I  und  II  der  Fall  war,  sonst 
sind  keine  Unterschiede  in  Betreff  derselben  hervorzuheben.1 


TABELLE  I.   GEFUNDENE  RESULTATE 


Mono- 

a.-chlor- 

allo-o.- 

Gesammt- 

Versuch. 

Art  des 
Chlorzwatzes. 

butter- 

chlor- 
croton- 

croton- 
saures 

chlorcro- 
tonsaures 

menge  der 
Kalium- 

sauren. 

Kaliunt. 

Kaliunt, 

salze. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Grm. 

Theorie 

— 

5,476 

— 

— 

— 

— 

I. 

auf  einmal 

5,383 

3,834 

1,264 

3,463 

4,727 

II. 

portionsweise 

5,400 

3,818 

1,306 

3,596 

4,912 

III. 

auf  einmal 

5,358 

3,847 

i,374 

3,895 

5,269 

IV. 

portionsweise 

5,359 

3,695 

I,l63 

3,39i 

4,554 

Theorie    fiir    Kalium  im  chlorcrotonsauren  Kalium  sind  24,60% 
I.   0,1864  Grm.  a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salzgaben  0,1025  Grm.  K2SO4 
24,67%  Kalium. 

0,5843  Grm.  allo-a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,3228  Grm. 

24,79%  Kalium. 

11.0,1683  Grm.  a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,0925  Grm.  K2SO 
=  24,67%  Kalium. 

0,1 888  Grm.  allo-a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,1046  Grm. 
K2SO4  =  24,83%  Kalium. 

III.  0,1125  Grm.  a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,0618  Grm.  K2SO4 
=  24,66%  Kalium. 

0,2297  Grm.  allo-a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,1242  Grm. 
K2SO4  =  24,13%  Kalium. 

IV.  0,2370  Grm.  a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,1283  Grm.  K2SO4 
=  24,26%  Kalium. 

0,1242   Grm.   allo-a-chlorcrotonsaures  Salz  gaben  0,0685  Grm. 
K2SO4  =  24,76%  Kalium. 

1  Da  die  o-Monochlorcrotonsauren  sich  noch  leichter  im  Vacuum  ver- 
fliichtigen,  als  die  entsprechenden  Bromsauren,  so  ist  es  ganz  unmoglich,  ein 
selbst  annahernd  constantes  Gewicht  zu  erhalten.  Die  Versuche  I  und  II  sind 
unter  absolut  gleichen  Bedingungen  ausgefiihrt  wurden,  und  es  kann  daher 
dieser  Umstand  keinen  wesentlichen  Einfluss  auf  das  Endresultat  ausgeiibt 
haben,  obwohl  aus  dem  theoretischen  Gewicht  der  Chlorcrotonsauren  her- 
vorgeht,  dass  eine  kleine  Menge  der  Chlorsauren  sich  verfliichtigt  haben  muss. 
Beim  Versuch  IV  verblieben,  in  der  Hoffnung,  ein  mehr  constantes  Gewicht 
zu  erhalten,  die  Sauren  1  anger  im  Vacuum,  als  beim  III.,  wodurch  die  noch 
geringere  Ausbeute  erklart  wird. 


3i2        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


TABELLE  II.  BERECHNETE  WERTE  AUS  OBIGEN  VERSUCHEN 


Relatives  Verhaltniss  des 

erhaltenen. 

Versuch. 

Art  des 
Chlor  zusatzes. 

0,-chlorcroton- 

allo-a.-chlor- 

sauren  Kalium. 

crotons.   Kal. 

I. 

auf  einmal 

26,7 

73,3 

II. 

portionsweise 

26,6 

73,4 

III. 

auf  einmal 

26,1 

73,9 

V. 

portionsweise 

25,5 

74,5 

Es  ist  aus  obigen  Resultaten  ersichtlich,  dass,  ebenso  wenig 
wie  mit  Brom,  die Wislicenus  'schen  Annahmen  und  Er- 
klarungen  betreffend  den  Einfluss  von  schnellen  und  verlang- 
samten  Additionen  von  Chlor  zu  fester  Crotonsaure  richtig 
und  stichhaltig  sind.  Bemerkenswerth  ist,  dass  man  bei  der 
Chloraddition  anscheinend  ein  Gemisch  reinerer  Chlorcroton- 
sauren  nach  der  Zersetzung  der  Dichlorbuttersaure  gewinnt, 
wie  dies  aus  den  sehr  genau  stimmenden  Zahlen  der  Kalium- 
bestimmungen  hervorgeht,  als  bei  den  entsprechenden  Ver- 
suchen  mit  Brom.  Zieht  man  in  Betracht,  dass  bei  der  Kalizer- 
setzung  von  reiner  a/?- Dichlorbuttersaure  schon  etwa  16% 
/?-Chlorcrotonsaure  gebildet  werden,  so  ist  man  berechtigt 
anzunehmen,  dass  etwa  10%  allo-a/?-Dichlorbuttersaure  als 
normales  Additionsprodukt  bei  der  Einwirkung  von  Chlor 
auf  Crotonsaure  gebildet  werden;  daher  in  betrachtlich 
grosserem  Verhaltniss,  als  die  allo  -aft-  Dibromsaure,  von 
der  nur  etwa  3%  bei  der  Addition  von  Brom  zu  Crotonsaure 
entsteht. 


ZUR   CONSTITUTION   DES   PHLORETINS1 

DIE  Feststellung  der  Constitution  des  Phloridzins  und  des 
Phloretins beruht  auf  einer  Untersuchung  von  Hugo  Schiff,2 
welcher  durch  Acetylirung  die  Gegenwart  von  f iinf  Hydroxylen 
in  der  ersten  und  von  zwei  soldier  Gruppen  in  der  letzten 
Verbindung  bewiesen  hat.  Von  diesem  Resultat  ausgehend 
hat  Schiff  das  Phloretin  als  einen  Ather  der  Phloretinsaure 
und  des  Phloroglucins  aufgefasst,  welcher,  da  er  nach  dieser 
Auffassung  ein  Carboxyl  enthalt,  eine  Saure  darstellen  solle. 
Diese  Vorstellung  der  Constitution  steht  aber  im  Widerspruch 
mit  den  lediglich  phenolartigen  Eigenschaften  des  Phloretins 
und  es  schien  mir  daher  von  Interesse,  das  Studium  des  Phlo- 
retins wieder  aufzunehmen. 

Zur  Acetylirung  des  Phloretins  wurde  ein  Stiickchen  wasser- 
freien  Zinkchlorids  in  20  g  Essigsaureanhydrid  in  der  Hitze 
aufgelost  und  zu  der  heissen  Losung,  nach  und  nach  und 
nur  in  kleinen  Mengen,  5  g  bei  100°  getrocknetes  Phloretin 
zugefugt.  Der  Kolben  wurde  mit  einem  Luftkiihler  verbun- 
den  und  die  Losung  auf  ganz  kurze  Zeit  zum  Kochen  ge- 
bracht;  der  Inhalt  desselben  wurde  in  eine  Porzellanschale 
gegossen  und  nach  dem  Erkalten  die  krystallinisch  erstarrte 
Masse  mit  kaltem  Wasser  iibergossen.  Das  Wasser  wurde 
von  Zeit  zu  Zeit  erneuert;  nach  zwei  bis  drei  Tagen  blieb  eine 
schwach  gefarbte,  feste  Masse  zuriick,  die  im  Vacuum  ge- 
trocknet  wurde.  Nach  vollstandigem  Trocknen  wurde  sie  mit 
wenig  wasserfreiem  Ather  ausgezogen,  der  Riickstand  abfil- 
trirt  und  mit  Ather  nachgewaschen,  wodurch  eine  amorphe 
Masse  entfernt  wurde,  und  der  nun  fast  farblos  gewordene 
Riickstand  drei  bis  fiinf  Mai  aus  heissem,  absolutem  Alkohol 

1  Printed  in  the  Berichte  der  deutschen  chemischen  Gesellschaft,  XXVII, 
2686 ;  also  in  pamphlet  form,  Berlin,  1894. 

2  Ann.  d.  Chem.  156,  i. 


3i4        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

krystallisirt.  Die  gleiche  Substanz  1st  auch  durch  Anwendung 
von  wasserfreiem  Natriumacetat  als  Wasserentziehungsmittel 
dargestellt  worden;  in  diesem  Fall  wurden  auf  i  g  Phloretin 
0.5  g  des  Natriumsalzes  und  etwa  4  g  Anhydrid  angewendet 
und  das  Gemisch  fiinfzehn  Minuten  in  einem  Kochsalzbade 
erhitzt.  Nach  dem  Ausziehen  des  Reactionsproducts  mit 
Wasser  erhalt  man  den  Korper  in  fast  weissem  Zustand,  dessen 
weitere  Reinigung  wie  oben  angegeben  vorgenommen  wurde. 
Auch  durch  Gebrauch  von  Zinntetrachlorid,  ein  Reagenz, 
das,  meines  Wissens,  man  bisher  nicht  zur  Acetylirung  an- 
gewandt  hat,  kann  man  das  gleiche  Acetylproduct  erhalten. 
Aus  10  g  Phloretin  wurde  nach  der  Acetatmethode  etwa  9  g 
Rohproduct,  aber  daraus  wurden  nur  3  g  reines  Product 
gewonnen.  Zur  Analyse  wurde  die  Substanz  im  Vacuum 
getrocknet. 

Analyse:  Ber.  fur  C15H12O5(C2H3O)2. 

Procente:   C  63.7,    H  5.0. 
Analyse:   Ber.  fur  C15HUO5(C2H3O)3. 

Procente:   C  63.00,  H  5.00, 

Gef.        "  "  62.65,62.70  62,70,     "  5.49,  5.32,  5.32. 

Der  Korper  bildet  schone,  farblose  Nadeln,  die  bei  93.5— 
94.5°  schmelzen  und  in  kaltem  Eisessig,  Aceton,  Benzol,  Es- 
sigather  und  Chloroform  loslich,  in  Ligroin  und  kaltem  Ather 
unloslich  sind.  Um  zu  ermitteln,  ob  Phloretin  aus  dem  Acetyl- 
derivat  zuriickgewonnen  werden  konnte,  wurde  das  Acetylpro- 
duct mit  3  procentigem,  wassrigem  Kali  iibergossen  und  das 
Gemisch  bei  gewohnlicher  Temperatur  so  lange  sich  selbst 
iiberlassen,  bis  ganzliche  Losung  erfolgt  war.  Beim  An- 
sauern  der  Losung  fiel  ein  Korper  aus,  der  in  Betrefl  seiner 
Eigenschaften  und  Aussehen  mit  denen  des  Phloretins 
ubereinstimmte.  Das  rohe  Product  schmolz  bei  etwa  220° 
und  es  kann  daher  wohl  kein  Zweifel  obwalten,  dass  Phloretin 
wirklich  vorlag.  Obwohl  die  Verbrennungsresultate  viel 
besser  mit  den  theoretischen  Zahlen  eines  Tri-  als  mit  denen 
eines  Diacetylphoretins  ubereinstimmten,  so  wurde  wegen 
der  verhaltnissmassig  kleinen  Differenz  zwischen  den  beiden 
Zahlenreihen  die  Anzahl  der  Actylgruppen  direct  bestimmt 


ZUR  CONSTITUTION  DES   PHLORETINS     315 

und  zwar  nach  der  von  H  e  r  z  i  g  *  angegebenen  Methode. 
Eine  gewogene  Menge  der  Substanz  wurde  mit  einem  tiber- 
schuss  10  procentiger  Kalilauge  im  zugeschmolzenen  Rohr 
10  Stunden  auf  100°  erhitzt,  der  Inhalt  des  Rohres  in  einen 
Kolben  gebracht,  mit  Phosphorsaure  angesauert  und  zuerst 
langere  Zeit  mit  Dampf  behandelt,  zuletzt  im  Vacuum  zur 
Trockne  abdestillirt.  Die  Bestimmung  der  Essigsaure  im 
Destillate  geschah  wie  Herzig  angegeben  hat;  es  ist  her- 
vorzuheben,  dass  bei  der  Behandlung  von  Phloretin  aiif  gleiche 
Weise  kein  saures  Destillat  gewonnen  wurde. 

Analyse:  Ber.  fur  C15H12O5(C2H3O)2. 

Procente  Acetyl:  22.05, 
Analyse:  Ber.  fur  C15HUO5(C2H3O)3. 

Procente  Acetyl:  32.20, 
Gef.  "  33.39,  33.68. 

Nach  diesem  Resultat  kann  man  nicht  zweifeln,  dass  Phlo- 
retin nicht  zwei,  sondern  mindestens  drei  Hydroxylgruppen 
enthalt,  wie  es  S  c  h  i  f  f  aus  seinen  Versuchen  gefolgert  hat. 
Um  zu  erfahren,  ob  das  amorphe  S  c  h  i  f  f  'sche  Product  wirklich 
von  dem  oben  beschriebenen  Korper  verschieden  ist,  wurden 
die  Angaben  von  S  c  h  i  f  f  zur  Darstellung  des  Acetylderivats 
vermittelst  Essigsaureanhydrid  ohne  Anwendung  eines  Was- 
serentziehungsmittels  genau  wiederholt;  beim  Einengen  der 
alkoholischen  Losung  des  Rohproducts  wurde  aber  eine  nicht 
unbetrachtliche  Menge  der  bei  94°  schmelzenden  Verbindung 
zunachst  abgeschieden.  Bei  einer  zweiten  Probe  wurde  das 
mit  Wasser  behandelte  und  im  Vacuum  getrocknete  Rohpro- 
duct  direct  mit  Ather  ausgezogen,  wodurch  etwa  ein  Dritteil 
einer  harzigen  Masse  entfernt  wurde,  und  der  Riickstand 
mehrmals  aus  Alkohol  krystallisirt.  Der  Korper  schmolz  bei 
94°  und  hatte  alle  Eigenschaften  des  Triacetylphloretins,  dessen 
Bildung  durch  eine  Analyse  bestatigt  wurde. 

Analyse:   Ber.  fur  CuflnO6(C^O\. 

Procente:   C  63.00,    H  5.00, 
Gef.        "         "  62.59,     "  5-20. 

1  Monatshefte  1884,  90. 


316        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

Das  harzige  Nebenproduct  der  Einwirkung  von  Essigsau- 
reanhydrid  auf  Phloretin  reprasentirt  vielleicht  ein  weniger 
acetylirtes  Derivat  und  wird  welter  untersucht. 

Die  Zeitdauer  der  Einwirkung  von  Essizsaureanhydrid  auf 
Glucoside  spielt  bekanntlich  eine  bedeutende  Rolle,  indem 
meistens  nach  kurzem  Verlauf  nur  teilweise  Acetylirung 
stattfindet;  auch  mit  Phloretin  entsteht  bei  langerem  Erhitzen 
ein  zweites,  hoher  schmelzendes  Acetylderivat.  Das  Gemisch 
von  Phloretin,  Natriumacetat  und  Essiganhydrid  in  den  an- 
gegebenen  Verhaltnissen  wurde  2 — 3  Stunden  in  einer  koch- 
enden  Salzlosung  gehalten  und  das  Reactionsproduct  wie 
oben  fur  das  Triacetylderivat  weiter  behandelt.  Zur  Reini- 
gung  des  Products  wurde  es  bis  zum  constanten  Schmelzpunkt 
aus  Alkohol  krystallisirt,  wozu  mehrmalige  Krystallisation 
notwendig  ist,  da  das  Rohproduct  aus  einem  Gemisch  be- 
steht.  Die  Verbrennungen  warden  mit  Bleichromat  ausge- 
fuhrt. 

Gef.  Procente:   C  63.52,  63.10;       H  5.33. 

Der  Korper  bildet  lange,  weisse  Nadeln,  die  bei  166 — 167° 
schmelzen.  In  Eisessig,  Benzol,  Aceton  und  Essigather  ist 
er  loslich,  dagegen  wird  er  sehr  schwer  von  kaltem  und  auch 
schwierig  von  heissem  Alkohol  sowie  von  Ather  aufgenom- 
men.  Die  analytischen  Zahlen  passen  nicht  auf  ein  enifaches 
Derivat  des  Phloretins,  und  es  ist  hochst  wahrscheinlich,  dass 
der  Korper  ein  Condensationsproduct  des  Triacetylphloretins 
darstellt.  Hervorzuheben  ist,  dass  man  das  gleiche  Product, 
obwohl  in  geringerer  Ausbeute,  mittels  Zinnchlorids  erhalt  und 
dass  dasTriacetylphloretin,  wieder  mit  Anhydrid  und  Natrium- 
acetat erhitzt,  ebenfalls  den  hoher  schmelzenden  Korper  liefert. 
Ich  gedenke  denselben  weiter  zu  untersuchen.  Nachdem 
diese  Versuche  vollendet  waren,  erschien  eine  Arbeit  von 
Ciamician  und  S  i  1  b  e  r,1  die  aus  Phloretin  ein  Acetyl- 
product  vom  Schmp.  170 — 171°  gewannen  und  demselben 
die  Constitution  C^H^Ot  zuschreiben.  Da  dieser  Korper 
als  leicht  loslich  in  Ather  angegeben  ist,  so  ist  es  zweifelhaft, 
ob  wir  mit  der  gleichen  Verhindung  zu  thun  haben. 

1  Diese  Berichte  27,  1630. 


ZUR   CONSTITUTION  DES   PHLORETINS     317 

Die  Constitution  des  Phloretins  scheint  mir  aus  meinen 
Resultaten  mit  ziemlicher  Sicherheit  hervorzugehen.  Dasselbe 
ist  kein  oxydartiger  Korper,  wie  S  c  h  i  f  f  annahm,  sondern 
der  Phloroglucinester  der  Phloretinsaure  von  der  Constitu- 
tion C6H3<0  Q2C  C2H4>CeH4oHj 

eine  Auffassung,  die  mit  der  Bildung  des  Triacetylderivats  und 
den  Eigenschaften  des  Phloretins  ubereinstimmt. 


A   REVIEW   OF   RECENT    SYNTHETIC   WORK   IN 
THE    CLASS    OF    CARBOHYDRATES1 

EVOLUTION  is  so  universal,  whether  as  exhibited  in  the  unfold- 
ing of  human  conceptions  or  in  the  making  of  worlds,  that  in 
all  reason  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  cosmic  principle.  The  fac- 
tors of  evolution  are  essentially  constructive  and  destructive 
ones,  since  growth  and  decay,  progress  and  retardation,  syn- 
thesis and  decomposition,  accompany  the  rhythmic  pulsations 
of  this  general  condition  of  change.  Likewise,  the  chain  of 
chemical  causality  may  be  conceived  of  as  closely  correlated 
with  this  presentation  of  evolution.  The  notion  advanced  in 
this  consideration  precludes  the  thought  of  permanence.  In 
chemical  activity  the  atoms  are  ever  shifting  their  position  in 
space,  and  this  unrest  is  indicative  of  the  fundamental  law  of 
advance.  Howsoever  stable  and  fixed  may  seem  the  individual 
links  of  this  chain,  in  reality  the  seeming  stability  is  a  condition 
of  variation  and  rearrangement  of  the  atoms  and  molecules. 
The  molecule,  that  smallest  portion  of  matter  self -existing, 
when  considered  as  the  resultant  of  chemical  reaction,  is  but  a 
state  of  force  equilibrium  between  the  becoming  and  the  van- 
ishing. 

In  this  evening's  review  of  recent  synthetic  work,  in  the 
sugar  group,  these  constructive  and  destructive  processes  are 
well  exemplified;  also,  the  unfolding  changes  so  apparent 
in  other  manifestations  of  universal  phenomena  are  likewise 
observable  in  the  realm  of  chemistry.  This  underlying  unity 
and  dominant  principle  unites  all  aspects  of  the  cosmos,  and 
connects  the  parts  into  a  living  universe  of  the  whole. 

Evolution,  when  applied  to  chemistry,  as  elsewhere,  com- 

1  A  lecture  delivered  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  March  8,  1895.  Printed 
in  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  September,  1896;  also  in  pamphlet 
form,  Philadelphia,  1896. 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES      319 

prises  the  notion  that  the  conceptions  of  the  science  advance 
with  the  unfolding  of  its  parts. 

The  evolution  of  chemical  compounds  is  theoretically  illus- 
trated by  the  building  of  more  complex  compounds  from  sim- 
ple compounds,  themselves  formed  from  the  elements,  which, 
no  doubt,  in  turn  come  from  still  simpler  sources.  The  com- 
plex bodies  of  the  same  type,  as,  for  instance,  the  hydrocar- 
bons of  the  fatty  series,  show  development  on  their  own  lines. 
Passing  from  the  fatty  hydrocarbons  to  those  of  the  aromatic 
series  is  another  example  and  indication  of  progress  to  syn- 
theses beyond.  In  the  laboratory  these  processes  no  doubt 
oftentimes  are  carried  out  by  circuitous  methods,  as  Nature's 
sequences  in  these  particulars  are  unknown.  In  the  natural 
changes  that  rocks,  plants  and  animals  undergo,  a  self-direc- 
tive chemical  consciousness,  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  re- 
spective conditions,  doubtless  obtains. 

There  was  a  time,  not  so  long  ago,  when  many  of  the  chem- 
ical compounds  resulting  from  the  chain  of  existence  were 
isolated  from  animal  and  plant  life.  The  key  of  chemical  change 
was  looked  for  in  the  study  of  plants,  and  to  these  sources, 
from  life,  chemists  turned  for  new  research  fields. 

A  little  later,  chemical  synthesis,  or  the  production  of  com- 
pounds by  artificial  means,  had  its  beginning.  From  time  to 
time,  at  longer  or  shorter  intervals,  appeared  the  announce- 
ment of  the  synthesis  of  some  compound  hitherto  derived  from 
plant  or  animal  life.  But  the  later  years  of  this  century,  from 
the  chemical  point  of  view,  may  be  regarded  specially  as  syn- 
thetic years,  ever  nearing  the  zenith  of  greater  attainment. 

The  subject  of  sugars  early  attracted  the  attention  of  chem- 
ists, not  only  because  of  the  industrial  aspects,  but  also,  be- 
ing one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  classification  of  compounds, 
the  study  of  its  varieties  and  composition  has  been  untiringly 
pursued.  The  vision  arose  in  the  long  past  of  its  possible  syn- 
thesis. Liebig  first  conceived  the  idea  of  making  sugar  arti- 
*fitially.  But  the  synthesis  of  this  important  group  of  com- 
pounds defied  all  efforts  until  comparatively  recent  times. 
The  first  mixture  of  synthetical  sugars  was  obtained  by  Butle- 


320       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

row,1  by  the  action  of  lime-water  on  oxymethylene,  in  the  form 
of  a  syrupy  liquid  which  he  named  methylenitan.  In  1863, 
Van  Deen,  by  the  oxidation  of  glycerine,  discovered  a  com- 
pound which  reduced  salts  of  copper  in  alkaline  solution,  and 
showed  other  properties  indicative  of  a  sugar,  although  of  a 
simpler  kind  than  those  found  in  nature.  The  discoveries  of 
Low,  Tollens,  and  Fischer  have  brought  the  investigations  of 
sugars  to  our  own  times. 

The  researches  of  Nageli,  from  a  botanical  standpoint, 
led  him  to  advance  a  theory  that  starch  was  the  origin  of  sugar 
in  plants. 

A  later  purely  chemical  hypothesis  of  the  synthesis  of  sugars 
from  simple  compounds  in  the  living  cell,  which,  in  turn,  yield 
more  complicated  compounds,  is  thought  by  many  to  be  a 
more  satisfactory  theory,  for  it  coincides  with  our  ideas  de- 
rived from  other  branches  of  scientific  investigation,  in  sup- 
port of  the  notion  that  from  simple  integrals  arise  intricate 
structures.  But  it  is  quite  probable  that  both  processes  of  con- 
struction and  destruction  are  carried  on  simultaneously  in  the 
plant.  In  the  laboratory  it  is  possible,  starting  with  the  ele- 
ments carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  to  form,  from  these  ele- 
ments, compounds  which  are  found  in  vegetable  life.  From 
the  simple  bodies  thus  derived  are  the  means  ready  at  hand 
to  proceed  to  compounds  of  a  sugar  type. 

The  carbon  dioxide  in  the  plant  is  derived  from  the  exter- 
nal environment  of  the  air  and  soil,  or  the  gas  is  generated 
within  the  plant  cells.  Under  the  influence  of  sunlight,  car- 
bon dioxide  and  water  yield  formaldehyde,  a  compound  con- 
taining the  group  (CHO);  i.  e.,  one  atom  respectively  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  known  as  the  aldehyde  group, 
united  to  hydrogen  by  the  residual  affinity  of  carbon.  Accord- 
ing to  Baeyer,  formaldehyde  is  the  source  of  the  plant's  sugar. 

In  the  chlorophyll  grains  of  the  green  part  of  the  leaf,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  formation  of  glucose  takes  place. 

The  aldehyde  group  enters  into  the  constitution,  and  is 
characteristic,  of  many  of  the  sugars.  One  of  the  divisions  in 
the  classification  of  sugars  containing  this  group  is  known  as 

1  Ann.,  cxx,  295. 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES    321 

the  aldehyde  sugars.  As  a  comprehensive  name  for  the  class, 
the  word  aldose  has  been  adopted.  The  other  class  of  sugars 
is  known  as  the  ketose  sugars,  so  called  from  the  ketone  group 
(CO),  or  carbonyl,  contained  in  their  molecules. 

The  ease  with  which  formaldehyde  polymerizes,  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  qualifies  this  compound  eminently  for  its 
function  in  sugar-formation. 

Polymerization  is  the  amalgamating,  so  to  speak,  of  two  or 
more  aldehyde  groups,  forming  a  carbon  compound  contain- 
ing a  greater  number  of  carbon  atoms. 

In  considering  the  polymers  of  formaldehyde,  Baeyer  sug- 
gested that,  under  the  influence  of  the  contents  of  the  plant 
cells,  6  molecules  of  formaldehyde  polymerize  to  form  i  mole- 
cule of  glucose,  6HCHO=C6H12O6. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  formaldehyde  occurs  in  plants, 
and  has  been  found  in  very  small  quantities  in  plant  cells;  but 
in  any  great  proportion  it  acts  as  a  poison  to  the  living  plant, 
and  Fischer  has  suggested,  in  consequence,  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  other  intermediary  compounds  occur  in  the 
formation  of  sugars.  Bokorny1  has  made  an  interesting  ob- 
servation on  the  assimilation  by  the  green  cells  of  Algae  of  a 
double  compound  of  formaldehyde  and  sodium  bisulphite. 
He  has  shown  that,  if  plants  are  deprived  of  starch  and  placed 
in  an  atmosphere  free  from  carbonic  acid,  they  are  capable 
of  forming  considerable  quantities  of  starch  under  the  influ- 
ence of  sunlight,  if  fed  upon  this  compound.  In  the  dark  the 
conversion  of  formaldehyde  into  starch  does  not  take  place. 

Low,  by  treating  formaldehyde  with  lime,  obtained  a  sugar 
which  he  called  formose.  Fischer  has  shown  that  this  pro- 
duct contains  sugar  compounds  of  the  composition  C6H12O6, 
and  among  these,  one  named  acrose,  which  stands  in  very 
close  relation  to  natural  glucose. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  that  the  term  sugar  includes  a 
variety  of  substances.  It  includes  fruit  sugar,  glucose,  and 
chemically  allied  sugar  groups,  some  of  which  contain  more 
and  some  less  carbon  atoms  than  glucose.  These  compounds 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  food  material  derived  from 

1  Landiv.  Jahrbwh,   xxi,  445. 


322        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

the  sugar-cane  or  beet-root,  and  milk  sugar.  Starches  and 
gums,  though  conveying  little  idea  of  sugar,  are  chemically 
to  be  considered  as  sugars. 

The  characteristics  of  these  different  compounds  are  very 
unlike.  They  vary  from  very  soluble  to  insoluble  compounds, 
and  from  crystalline  to  non- crystalline  bodies.  But  the  in- 
soluble compounds,  like  starch  and  cellulose,  may  be  con- 
verted into  the  soluble  sugars  by  the  action  of  heat  and  dilute 
acids,  and  by  certain  ferments,  as  diastase.  The  reaction 
which  accompanies  this  conversion  involves  the  taking  up  of 
water,  and  at  the  same  time  the  complicated  molecule  splits 
into  several  simpler  ones.  This  reaction  is  called  hydrolosis: 
x(C6H10O5)  +  xH2O  =  xC6H12O6. 

As  will  be  observed,  the  sugar  group  —  collectively  desig- 
nated as  "carbohydrates"  —  comprehends  a  vast  widening- 
out  vista  of  compounds,  from  a  simple  compound  derived 
directly  from  the  elements,  to  complex  bodies  with  numerous 
isomers. 

The  sugars  of  physiological  consequence  are  widely  spread 
in  animals  and  plants,  and,  as  carbohydrates,  constitute  one 
of  the  three  great  classes  of  natural  organic  compounds,  the 
fats  and  albuminoids  constituting  the  other  two  classes.  La- 
voisier discovered  that  the  materials  of  which  carbohydrates 
are  composed  were  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen;  but  the 
objection  to  the  use  of  the  term  carbohydrate,  which  is  denned 
as  a  compound  containing  carbon  and  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
in  the  proportion  of  2  to  i,  is  its  non- universality.  The  sugar 
called  rhamnose,  C6H12O5,  may  be  mentioned  as  an  excep- 
tion to  the  definition,  but  for  purposes  of  classification  the 
name  carbohydrate  has  been  retained  by  writers. 

The  carbohydrates  have  been  divided  for  convenience  into 
three  groups: 

(1)  Simple  sugars,  or  monosaccharides,  as  grape  or  fruit 
sugars. 

(2)  Decomposable  sugars,  or  polysaccharides,  as  cane  or 
milk  sugar  and  raffinose. 

(3)  Polysaccharides  unlike  sugar,  as  starch,  cellulose,  and 
dextrine. 


CQIJ 


SYNTHETIC  WORK   IN   CARBOHYDRATES    323 

The  polysaccharides  are  bodies  made  up  from  several  sim- 
ple sugar  molecules,  uniting  with  elimination  of  water.  Thus 
cane  sugar  may  be  converted  into  grape  and  fruit  sugar  by 
hydroly tic  reaction,  as  shown  by  the  equation :  — 

C12H22On  +H2O  =C6H12O6  +C6H12O6; 

consequently,  the  simple  sugars,  like  glucose,  appear  as  the 
basis  of  the  entire  group. 

In  nature,  the  simple  sugars,  or  monosaccharides,  are  found 
not  only  as  carbohydrates,  but  they  occur  also  in  combina- 
tion with  phenols  as  glucosides. 

From  the  widely  spread  distribution  of  glucose,  its  uses  as 
a  food  product,  and  considered  chemically  as  the  basis  of  more 
complicated  carbohydrates,  it  deserves  careful  consideration. 

The  name  hexose,  which  is  the  general  name  for  the  glu- 
cose group,  as  the  word  implies,  shows  that  6  carbon  atoms 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  individuals  of  the  group. 
These  carbon  atoms  are  united  in  an  open  chain,  each  carbon 
atom,  except  one  at  one  end  of  the  chain,  being  united  to  a 
hydroxyl  (OH)  group.  This  end  carbon  atom  is  united  with 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  forming  an  aldehyde  group  which  is 
peculiar  to  these  sugars.  Glucose  and  sugars  of  its  class  are 
represented  by  the  constitution  which  expresses  an  aldose  or 
aldehyde  sugar,  CH2OH  .  (CHOH)n  .  CHO. 

Fruit  sugar,  or  ketose,  is  expressed  by  the  formula :  — 

CH2OH  .  (CHOH)n .  CO  .  CH2OH. 

The  reason  for  accepting  this  atomic  arrangement  to  ex- 
press the  constitution  of  the  glucose  and  fructose  groups  is 
based  upon  several  considerations.  Grape  and  fruit  sugar, 
on  reduction  with  hydrogen,  yield  the  alcohol  mannite.  Galac- 
tose,  which  is  also  an  aldehyde  sugar,  under  the  same  condi- 
tions gives  the  alcohol  dulcite.  The  6  hydrogen  atoms  of  the 
hydroxyl  groups  of  these  alcohols  are  replaced  by  acetyl  groups 
on  treating  them  with  acetic  anhydride,  so  they  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  hexavalent  alcohols  of  the  above  sugars. 

The  aldehyde  character  of  glucose  and  galactose  is  also 
shown  by  their  behavior  towards  oxidizing  agents.  On  par- 
tial oxidation,  by  chlorine  or  bromine  water,  they  yield  re- 


324        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

spectively  gluconic  and  galactonic  acids.  By  complete  oxida- 
tion they  both  give  saccharic  acid.1 

Conversely  to  the  aldehyde  sugars,  fruit  sugar  is  slowly 
attacked  by  bromine  water.  By  the  action  of  a  more  powerful 
oxidizing  reagent  it  is  decomposed  into  products  containing 
fewer  carbon  atoms. 

The  aldehyde  and  ketone  character  of  these  compounds 
is  shown  by  the  readiness  with  which  the  sugars  form  hy- 
drazone  and  osazone  compounds.  This  reaction  with  phe- 
nylhydrazine  is  characteristic  of  all  compounds  containing 
aldehyde  and  ketone  groups.2 

The  sugar  varieties  which  to-day  go  to  make  up  a  magnifi- 
cent display  of  synthetic  skill  include  many  isomers,  depend- 
ing upon  the  different  arrangement  of  the  atoms  in  space.  In 
order  to  have  a  clear  view  over  this  field,  it  is  important  to  as- 
certain the  spacial  relations  or  configuration  of  each  member 
of  the  sugar  groups.3 

The  latest  publications  by  Emil  Fischer  on  the  stereomers 
of  the  sugar  groups  show  an  admirable  agreement  between 
the  conflicting  facts  pertaining  to  the  sugars  which  have  poured 
in  from  isolated  researches  during  past  years,  when  these  are 
considered  in  the  light  of  Le  Bel  and  Van't  Hoff's  theory.  The 
names  of  these  investigators  are  especially  identified  with 
stereo-chemistry,  although  others  have  followed  in  the  same 
lines. 

Among  the  writings  of  the  past,  the  geometrical  forms  of 
matter  were  suggested  by  the  Greeks,  and  later  by  Sweden- 
borg  as  a  possibility;  but  it  was  Pasteur,  in  1860,  who  gave 
the  underlying  idea  of  grouping  of  atoms  in  space. 

1  When  a  solution  of  the  alcohol  mannite  is  heated  for  some  hours  to  42°  C. 
with  nitric  acid,  it  is  oxidized  to  mannose;  if  the  reaction  is  continued  with 
increased  heat,  the  oxidation  is  carried  on  to  the  acid  formation. 

2  CH2OH(CHOH)4CHO  +  CCH5HN2H2=  CH2OH(CHOH)4CH 

N2HC6H6+H20 

CH2OH(CHOH)3CO  .  CH2OH+CCH5HN2H2=CH2OH(CHOH)3C.CH2OH 
+  H20  | 

N2HC6H5 

3  The  configuration  of  a  compound  is  the  relative  position  of  its  atoms  in 
space.     The  portion  of  chemistry  treating  on  this  subject  is  called  stereo- 
chemistry. 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES    325 

This  theory  explains  the  existence  of  two  or  more  compounds 
of  like  chemical  composition,  by  assuming  different  disposi- 
tions of  the  atoms  entering  into  the  compound. 

The  simplest  hydrocarbon,  methane,  is  conceived  as  being 
a  tetrahedron  with  a  carbon  atom  in  its  centre  and  one  hy- 
drogen atom  joined  at  each  of  its  four  angles.  The  carbon 
atom  of  this  compound  is  symmetrical,  inasmuch  as  all  the 
atoms  to  which  it  is  united  are  of  a  like  kind.  In  such  a  case 
stereomers  are  impossible. 

But  in  order  to  have  the  conditions  for  stereosomerism,  it 
is  necessary  for  a  compound  to  contain  one  or  more  atoms  of 
asymmetrical  carbon;  that  is,  a  carbon  atom  united  by  all  of 
its  four  bonds  to  atoms  or  groups  of  atoms  of  different  kinds. 

Methane  may  be  represented,  for  illustration,  by  a  paste- 
board tetrahedron  model,1  the  angles  being  painted  red  to 
distinguish  the  points  of  carbon's  union  with  hydrogen  atoms. 
If  this  model  be  placed  angle  to  angle  with  a  second  methane 
tetrahedron,  the  hydrogen  atoms  will  coincide,  and  if  one  of 
the  models  be  superimposed  upon  the  other,  the  hydrogen 
atoms  at  each  of  the  angles  will  touch,  showing  the  symme- 
trical grouping.  The  symmetry  of  the  molecule  is  not  dis- 
turbed when  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  atoms  replace  the 
hydrogen  atoms  of  methane.  But  when  all  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  are  replaced  by  different  kinds  of  atoms,  it  will  be  found, 
on  bringing  the  angles  of  like  color  of  two  models  together 
and  superimposing  the  one  model  upon  the  second  model, 
that  the  angles  of  like  colors  cannot  be  made  to  coincide. 

Lactic  acid  is  an  illustration  of  a  compound  containing  an 
asymmetrical  carbon.  This  compound,  represented  by  the 
constitution  CH3 .  CHOH  .  CO  OH,  contains  two  symmetri- 
cal carbon  atoms,  one  at  either  end;  the  carbon  atom  which 
occupies  the  middle  position  is  the  asymmetrical  carbon,  since 
this  atom  is  united  by  its  four  bonds  with  different  atoms  or 
groups.  The  presence  of  this  middle  carbon  atom  induces 
the  conditions  which  cause  lactic  acid  to  appear  under  two 
acid  modifications.  By  the  action  of  these  compounds  on  the 

1  The  subject  here  and  what  follows  was  explained  by  means  of  models 
and  charts. 


326        PLANT  AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

rays  of  polarized  light,  which  are  turned  to  the  right  or  left, 
depending  upon  the  isomer,  the  acids  are  known  as  the  right 
and  left  lactic  acids.  In  uniting  they  give  an  inactive  form. 
In  connection  herewith,  it  may  be  well  to  mention  the  tar- 
taric  acid  experiments  of  Pasteur.  On  working  with  certain 
of  the  salts  of  that  form  of  tartaric  acid  called  racemic  acid, 
he  noticed  that  he  could  separate  them  into  two  crystalline 
forms,  which  in  aqueous  solution  behaved  differently  towards 
polarized  light.  According  to  the  direction  that  the  solutions 
of  the  crystals  turn  the  plane  of  polarized  light,  they  are  known 
as  the  salts  of  the  right  and  left  tartaric  acids.  The  corre- 
sponding acids  contain  two  symmetrical  and  two  asymmetri- 
cal carbons.  They  may 'be  represented  in  this  manner:  - 

Right  Tartaric  Acid.  Left  Tartaric  Acid. 

COOH  COOH 

H— C— OH  OH— C— H 

OH— C— H  H— C— OH 

I  I 

COOH  COOH 

The  two  active  modifications  may  he  brought  together,  and 
when  united,  give  the  inactive  form,  or  racemic  acid. 


COOH 

COOH 

H— 

-OH 

OH— 

-H 

OH- 

—  H 

H— 

—OH 

|            COOH 

COOH       | 

The  inactive  acid  may  be  separated  into  its  active  compo- 
nents by  chemical  means,  or  by  the  action  of  certain  ferments. 
These  ferments  have  the  effect  of  destroying  either  the  right 
or  the  left  modification. 

There  is  another  inactive  form  of  the  acid,  known  as  the 


SYNTHETIC   WORK  IN   CARBOHYDRATES    327 

anti-tartaric  acid.    This  is  the  result  of  synthesis,  and  is  not 
decomposable  into  active  parts. 


A  nti-tartaric  A  cid. 

COOH 


OH— 


OH— 


— H 


— H 


COOH 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  easy  to  understand  the 
parallelism  of  Pasteur's  classical  experiments  with  the  sugars 
and  the  application  of  this  theory  to  other  classes  of  com- 
pounds. 

With  the  simple  sugar  molecules  the  conditions  are  not  so 
complex  as  in  the  higher  sugar  series,  and  the  number  of  stereo- 
mers  is  less.  With  an  increasing  number  of  carbon  atoms  the 
conditions  of  asymmetry  increase  and  stereomers  are  more 
numerous. 

In  the  case  of  glucose  the  number  of  asymmetrical  carbons 
is  four.  The  possible  number  of  stereomers  is  sixteen,  of  which 
eleven  are  known.  Among  these,  five  are  optical  pairs.  That 
is,  each  member  of  these  optical  pairs  turns  the  plane  of  polar- 
ized light  in  an  opposite  direction,  and  one  of  the  pair  may 
be  described  as  the  reflected  or  "mirror  image"  of  the  other. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  glucose  refers  to  a  compound 
which  appears  under  two  forms  in  respect  of  its  action  on 
polarized  light,  the  explanation,  from  what  has  gone  before, 
of  this  quality  is  seen  to  rest  on  the  space  position  of  its  atoms. 
The  position  of  the  hydrogen  and  hydroxyl  groups,  with  re- 
spect to  the  asymmetrical  carbons  in  the  molecule  of  the  ac- 
tive glucose,  which  turns  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the 
right,  is  diametrically  opposite  to  the  position  in  space  of  these 
same  atoms  and  groups  in  the  other  modification  of  glucose, 
which  turns  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  left.1 

The  right  glucose  may  be  spoken  of  as  the  " mirror  image" 

1  This  was  represented  on  a  diagram. 


328        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


TABLE  I. — PENTOSE,  PENTONIC  ACID, 


I 

2 

3 

4 

COH 
H  OH 
HO  H 
H  OH 
CH2OH 

/  Xylose. 
/  Xylonic  acid. 

COH 
HO  H 
H  OH 
HO  H 
CH2OH 

[Mirror 
COH 
HO  H 
HO  H 
HO  H 
CH2OH 

/  Ribose. 
/  Ribonic  acid. 

Images.l 
COH 
H  OH 
H  OH 
H  OH 
CH2OH 

9 

10 

C 

H  — 
H  — 
H  — 

( 
Ribo-triox} 
Adonite  (ir 

:OOH 

—  OH 
—  OH 
—  OH 

:OOH 

glutaric  acid, 
tactive). 

H  — 
HO  — 
H  — 
< 

Xylo-trioxyg 
Xylite  (inac 

COOH 
—  OH 
—  H 
—  OH 
300H 
;lutaric  acid, 
tive). 

HEXOSE,  HEXONTC  ACIDS,  HEXITE  AND 


13 

14 

i5 

16 

COH 

COH 

COH 

COH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO- 

— H 

HO  — 

TT 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

BO— 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO- 

— H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

BO— 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

TT 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

/  Mannose. 

d  Mannose. 

/  Idose. 

d  Idose. 

/  Mannic  acid. 

d  Mannic  acid. 

/  Idonic  acid. 

d  Idonic  acid. 

The  configurations  of  the  acids  correspond- 

b.  DULCITE 


27 

28 

29 

30 

COH 

COH 

COH 

COH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

/  Galactose. 

d  Galactose. 

/  Galactonic  acid. 

d  Galactonic  acid. 

SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN   CARBOHYDRATES    329 

PENTITE  AND  TRIOXYGLTJTARIC  ACIDS. 


5 

6 

7 

8 

COH 

COH 

COH 

COH 

H  OH 

H—   —  OH 

HO  —  1—  H 

HO  —  1—  H 

HO  H 

H  OH 

H  —   —  OH 

HO—   —  H 

HO  H 

HO  H 

H  —  |  —  OH 

H  —  1  —  OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

/  Arabinose. 

d  Arabinose. 

/  Arabonic  acid. 

ii 

12 

COOH 

COOH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

COOH 

COOH 

/  Trioxyglutaric  acid. 
/  Arabite. 


SACCHARIC  ACIDS.  —  a.  MANNITE  GROUP. 


17 

18 

19 

20 

COH 

COH 

COH 

COH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

I  Glucose. 

/  Gulose. 

d  Glucose. 

d  Gulose. 

/  Gluconic  acid. 

/  Gulonic  acid. 

d  Gluconic  acid. 

d  Gulonic  acid. 

ing  to  the  above  have  been  omitted. 
GROUP. 


31 

32 

33 

34 

COH 

COH 

COH 

COH 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

HO  — 

—  H 

H  — 

—  OH 

H  — 

—  OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

CH2OH 

d  Talose. 

d  Talonic  acid. 

330        PLANT   AND    ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  the  left  one,  for  by  no  possible  turning  can  the  configura- 
tion of  the  one  be  superimposed  upon  the  other.  Thus  they 
are  called  enantiomorphic;  but  united,  they  give  the  modifi- 
cation towards  polarized  light.  The  inactive  glucose  may  be 
again  decomposed  into  the  two  active  forms. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  Why  are  these  configura- 
tions represented  as  they  are  on  the  diagram  ?  x  It  would  carry 
us  beyond  the  time  allotted  for  this  occasion  to  go  into  the 
reasonings  for  each  case.  I  will  only  take  one  or  two  exam- 
ples. But  it  may  be  stated  generally  that  the  observations 
made  on  these  sugars  from  experimental  facts  are  in  accord 
with  theory. 

On  the  chart,  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  diagram,  are  the 
two  triose  sugars,  each  with  one  asymmetrical  carbon.  On 
the  next  lines  are  the  four  tetroses,  which  have  been  made  syn- 
thetically. There  are  eight  pentose  sugars  having  three  asym- 
metrical carbons;  and  below  these  are  represented  the  six- 
teen hexose  sugars,  to  which  glucose  belongs.  I  have  not 
considered  it  necessary  to  continue  the  representation  of  the 
higher  sugars  on  the  chart. 

But  suppose  that  I  should  change  the  aldehyde  group  of 
these  sugars  into  a  corresponding  alcohol  group,  it  would  be- 
come apparent  that  the  conditions  for  asymmetry  were  changed. 
Each  of  the  end  carbon  atoms,  in  its  atomic  relations,  is  alike, 
and  these  alcohols  contain  only  two  asymmetrical  carbons. 
The  configurations  for  the  pentose  sugars,  one  and  two,  here 
given,  are  unlike.  They  are  the  mirror  images  of  each  other. 
When  reduced,  however,  to  their  alcohols,  the  identity  of  the 
alcohols  arising  from  these  two  sugars  becomes  apparent  on 
turning  the  end  group  of  one  df  the  compounds  in  the  plane 
of  the  diagram,  and  bringing  this  group  to  the  top  of  the  other 
configurations.  Also,  if  these  alcohols  are  imagined  to  be  the 
acids  of  the  group,  the  tri-oxyglutaric  acids,  the  (CO OH) 
groups  standing  at  each  end  of  the  carbon  chain  when  the  acid 
is  turned  in  the  same  plane  on  the  diagram  as  the  alcohols, 
it  will  be  seen  that  one  acid  configuration  results  from  two 
sugar  ones,  as  in  the  former  case  of  the  alcohols. 

1  See  Table  I. 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN   CARBOHYDRATES    331 

There  are  only  four  alcohol  and  acid  isomers  for  the  eight 
sugar  isomers  in  this  group.  In  the  other  higher  sugar  groups 
the  conditions  are  somewhat  changed.  But  by  studying  the 
results  of  oxidation  or  reduction  on  sugars,  it  may  be  shown 
that  the  compounds  so  obtained  point  to  the  probable  con- 
figuration of  a  given  sugar;  and  in  this  way,  these  formulae 
express  the  conclusions  of  actual  experiment. 

These  active  asymmetrical  compounds  are  obtained  directly 
from  natural  products,  or  are  derived  from  optically  active 
compounds.  If  compounds  are  formed  from  inactive  ones, 
and  inactive  modifications  arise,  these  inactive  forms  must 
be  decomposed  in  order  that  the  active  form  may  appear. 

Although  these  active  compounds  are  the  resultants  of 
accompanying  life  processes,  they  are  not  regarded  by  the 
chemical  thinkers  of  the  day  as  essentially  due  to  a  life  force. 
Fischer  believes  that  these  active  compounds  will  all  be  made 
synthetically.  This  is  by  no  means  assuming  that  the  know- 
ledge to  fabricate  these  active  substances  will  give  into  the 
hands  of  the  chemist  the  secret  touch  to  set  these  molecules 
into  a  life  mechanism. 

The  example  of  the  glorious  period  of  the  highest  achieve- 
ments in  Greek  art  remains  as  a  reminder  that  neither  the 
skill  of  a  Phidias  nor  of  a  Praxiteles  could  give  to  their  creations 
the  breath  of  life.  The  analogous  height  and  limit  of  relative 
perfection  in  attainment  is  seen  in  other  developments  of  hu- 
man conception.  Each  later  development  may  reach  a  higher 
round  of  the  ladder  than  its  predecessors,  and  the  standpoint 
of  vision  may  be  a  line  nearer  that  goal  which  seems  to  recede 
as  the  effort  of  advance  reaches  forward. 

An  Arabian  alchemist,  it  is  said,  first  obtained  grape  sugar, 
or  glucose,  in  a  solid  form,  by  concentrating  grape  sap.  It  was 
obtained  pure  by  the  chemist  Marggraf,  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  The  conversion  of  starch  into  grape  sugar  by 
boiling  with  dilute  acids  was  discovered  by  Kirchhoff,  in  1811. 
No  less  interesting  is  the  recent  work  of  Rohmann,  wherein 
he  shows  that  blood  serum  converts  potato  starch  into  dextro- 
glucose,  and  that  finally,  at  the  end  of  the  reaction,  maltose, 
likewise  soluble  starch  and  dextrine,  remain. 


332        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


TABLE  II. 


Aldose. 

Mono-basic  acid. 

Biose  

Glycolaldehyde 

Triose  

Glycerose    (Mixture  oi 

Tetrose  

aldose  and  ketose.) 
Erythrose 

Erythritic  acid 

Pentose                        < 

d-l-i  Arabinose. 
Xylose 

/  Arabic  acid. 

Methyl  Pentose  .  .      j 

{Mannite        | 
Group       [ 
Dulcite         ( 
Group        i 

Methyl-hexose  

/  Ribose. 

Rhamnose.                  } 
Chinovose. 
Fucose.                        ) 

d-l-i  Glucose. 
d-l-i  Gulose. 
d-l-i  Mannose. 
d-l-i  Idose. 

d-l-i  Galactose. 
d  Talose. 

Ct  Rhamno-hexose 

/  Ribonic  acid. 
Rhamnic  acid. 

d-l-i  Gluconic  acid. 
d-l-i  Gulonic  acid. 
d-l-i  Mannic  acid. 
d-l-i  Idonic  acid. 

d-l-i  Galactonic  acid. 
d  Talonic  acid. 

(  a  Rhamno-hexonic  acid.    ) 

Heptose                      < 

d-l-i  Manno-heptose. 
a  Gluco-heptose. 

\fl  Rhamno-hexonic  acid.   ) 

d-l-i  Manno-heptonic  acid. 
a  Gluco-heptonic  acid. 

Methyl-heptose  
Octose 

a  Gala-heptose. 
ft  Gala-heptose. 

Rhamno  -heptose  . 
Manno-octose. 

a  Gala-heptonic  acid. 
^  Gala-heptonic  acid. 

Rhamno-heptonic  acid. 

Manno-octonic  acid. 
j  a  Gluco-octonic  acid.        ) 

Nonose                        ^ 

Gala-octose. 
Manno-nonose. 

(  /y  Gluco-octonic  acid.         ( 
Gala-octonic  acid. 

Manno-nononic  acid.             \ 

Aromatic  Series  

Gluco-nonose. 
Phenyltetrose. 

Gluco-nononic  acid.               } 
Phenyltetronic  acid. 

Ketose. 

Structure  Unknown. 

Triose 

Dioxyacetone 

Hexose   < 

(contained  in  gly- 
cerose). 

d-l-i  Fructose. 

Formose. 

Sorbose. 

[3  Acrose. 

SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES    333 


TABLE    H. 


Di-basic  acid. 

Polyvalent  alcohol. 

Oxalic  acid. 
Tartronic  acid. 

Glycol. 
Glycerine. 

4  Tartaric  acids. 

2  Erythrite. 

/  Trioxyglutaric  acid. 
Xylo-trioxyglutaric  acid  (inactive). 
Ribo-trioxyglutaric  acid  (inactive). 

/  Arabite. 
Xylite  (inactive). 
Adonite  (inactive). 

Rhamnite. 

(  d-l-i  Saccharic  acid. 
<  d-l-i  Manno-saccharic  acid. 
(  d-l-i  Ido-saccharic  acid. 

^-/-Sarbite. 
d-l-i  Mannite. 
d-l  Idite  (i). 

Mucic  acid  (inactive). 
(  d-l  Talo-mucid  acid.                                   ) 
(  Allo-mucic  acid.                                         ) 

Dulcite  (inactive). 
d-l  Talite. 

a  Rhamnohexite. 

d  Manno-heptanpentoldic  acid, 
a  Gluco-heptanpentoldic  acid  (inactive), 
jtf  Gluco-heptanpentoldic  acid. 
a  Gala-heptanpentoldic  acid. 
p  Gala-heptanpentoldic  acid. 

d-l-i  Mannoheptite  (Perseit). 
a  Glucoheptite  (inactive). 

a  Galaheptite. 

Manno-octite. 

a  Gluco-octite. 

Gluco-nonite. 

(i)  Ber.  28,  1975. 

Aldehyde  Acids. 

(CHOH)4<gg°H 

Glucuronic  acid. 
Oxygluconic  acid. 

(CHOH)6<CggH 

Aldehydgalactonic  acid. 

334        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 


OH 

I 


ft 


SYNTHETIC   WORK   IN   CARBOHYDRATES    335 

From  all  sources  the  number  of  simple  sugars,  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century  to  less  than  ten  years  ago,  numbered 
not  over  6.  Now,  by  means  of  synthetical  research,  not  less 
than  30  simple  sugars  are  known,  and  7  of  them  are  natural 
products.  Among  the  7  carbon-atom  sugars,  by  calculating 
the  possible  number  of  isomers,  32  are  possible,  of  which  only 
6  have  thus  far  been  obtained.  Of  the  128  possible  nonose 
sugars,  as  yet  but  2  have  been  made.1 

To  carry  out  the  thought  of  the  sugar-group  development 
it  will  be  necessary  to  give  rapidly  an  outline  of  these  sugars 
before  summing  up  the  methods  which  led  to  their  synthesis. 

Under  the  mannite  group  are  included  grape  sugar  and 
sugars  possessing  the  same  chemical  composition  as  grape 
sugar.  The  mannose  sugars  also  come  under  this  group,  with 
their  corresponding  alcohols  and  acids.  The  right,  left,  and 
inactive  mannose  correspond  to  the  d-l  and  i  glucose.  The 
right  mannose  is  formed  at  the  same  time  as  the  right  fructose, 
by  the  careful  oxidation  of  the  alcohol  mannite.  It  was  first 
obtained  in  this  way.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  mannite  is 
found  in  manna.  Mannose  may  also  be  obtained  from  the 
natural  carbohydrates  by  hydrolytic  reaction.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  fruit  of  many  palms.  A  very  cheap  source  of  supply  is 
from  the  shavings  of  vegetable  ivory  in  the  manufacture  of 
buttons.  In  separating  the  right  mannose  from  its  solutions, 
its  phenylhydrazone  compound  is  used.  This  compound  is 
very  insoluble,  and  affords  a  characteristic  test  for  this  sub- 
stance. 

The  left  mannose  is  obtained  from  the  left  arabinose.2  The 
arabinose  compounds  contain  5  atoms  of  carbon.  The  cyan- 
hydrine  reaction  in  the  sugar  series,  or  Kiliani's  reaction,  is 
the  one  employed  in  its  formation.  This  method  has  opened 
the  field  to  some  of  the  most  important  discoveries  in  sugar 
synthesis.  In  this  reaction  prussic  acid  unites  directly  with 
sugar,3  and  in  this  way  the  number  of  carbon  atoms  in  the 

1  The  table  shows  the  present  sugar  status. 

2  By  right,  left,  and  inactive  acids,  of  course,  is  meant  the  effect  of  these 
compounds  on  polarized  light. 

3  C2HOH(CHOH)tCHO  +  HCN=CH2OH(CHOH)4CHOH  .  CN+H2O. 


336        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY 

sugar  chain  may  be  increased  and  a  higher  synthetic  com- 
pound formed.  Upon  the  addition  of  prussic  acid  to  sugar 
compounds,  the  further  processes  of  saponification  and  reduc- 
tion are  necessary  before  obtaining  a  higher  sugar.  By  this 
method  it  is  possible  to  pass  from  sugars  containing  a  few  car- 
bon atoms  to  sugars  representing  a  higher  synthetical  series. 
However,  this  method  can  only  be  used  with  sugar  compounds 
containing  not  less  than  3  carbon  atoms.  Such  compounds 
have  the  power  of  forming  lactones,  and  sugars  of  a  higher 
carbon  percentage  are  obtained  by  reducing  these  lactones.1 
By  the  use  of  this  method  Fischer  has  obtained  some  of  his 
most  brilliant  achievements. 

The  right,  left,  and  inactive  glucose  and  idose,  which  are 
stereomers  of  glucose,  have  been  obtained  synthetically  from 
their  corresponding  acids.  Idose  is  named  from  the  symme- 
trical form  of  its  molecules,  and  is  among  the  latest  discovered 
compounds  of  this  group.  The  acids  of  these  last  two  sugars 
are  isomeric  with  the  sugar  acids  obtained  by  oxidizing  glu- 
cose and  mannose. 

Two  other  sugars,  which  may  be  mentioned  as  belonging 
to  the  hexoses,  are  galactose  and  talose.  The  right,  left,  and 
inactive  galactose  have  been  obtained.  The  ^-galactose  as 
well  as  the  ^-glucose  may  be  derived  from  milk  sugar  by  hy- 
drolysis. The  latter  may  also  be  obtained  by  the  same  means 
from  other  carbohydrates.  Galactose  yields,  on  reduction,  an 
alcohol  called  dulcite.  These  sugars  belong  to  the  second  divi- 
sion of  the  hexose  group,  known  as  the  dulcite  group,  and  by 
oxidation  yield  mucic  acid;  whereas  the  sugars  of  the  mannite 
division  yield,  on  oxidation,  saccharic  acid.  All  these  sugars 
may  be  separated  from  their  solutions,  in  a  solid  form,  by 

1  The  lactones  are  gamma  hydroxy  compounds,  which,  by  the  loss  of 
water,  give  an  anhydride. 

CH2OH 

CH3 
JH, 

COOH 

Counting  from  the  one  above  the  bottom  group,  the  carbons  are  known  as 
the  alpha,  beta,  gamma,  delta  carbons,  etc. 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES    337 

means  of  their  hydrazones  and  osazones.1"  However,  with  the 
exception  of  mannose,  the  hydrazones  of  other  sugars  are  mostly 
soluble  in  water.  Hence,  the  reaction  with  phenylhydrazine 
is  carried  on  to  a  further  state,  which  results  in  the  formation 
of  the  insoluble  osazones.  These  compounds  differ  decidedly 
in  color  and  system  of  crystallization.  They  have  sharp  melt- 
ing-points, which  lead  to  their  easy  identification. 

Another  class  of  substances,  which  are  called  mercaptals, 
and  are  compounds  of  sugar  with  sulphur,  of  the  composition 
CH2OH(CHOH)4CH(S2C5H)2,  furnishes  a  means  of  separat- 
ing and  distinguishing  the  aldehyde  sugar  compounds. 

The  synthetical  sugars  containing  7,  8,  and  9  carbon  atoms, 
derived  from  the  groups  containing  less  carbon  atoms,  may 
be  made  by  Kiliani's  method. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  sugars  containing  3,  6,  and 
9  atoms  of  carbon  are  fermentable;  while  those  containing 
4,  5,  and  7  atoms  of  carbon  cannot  be  fermented. 

Fischer  has  suggested  wherein  the  interest  of  these  massive 
sugar  molecules  lies.  It  is  in  physiological  research.  He  has 
proposed,  as  worthy  of  attention,  that  these  higher  synthetical 
sugars  be  experimented  with  as  to  their  full  physiological  value. 
Possibly  the  tissues  of  animals  nourished  with  these  higher 
sugars  may  yield  other  chemical  products;  the  liver  may  give 
a  new  glycogen,  and  a  new  acid  may  be  found  in  the  milk  secre- 
tions from  the  mammary  glands.  Here  may  possibly  be  opened 
a  new  research  ground  for  the  biologist. 

The  pentosans  are  compounds  belonging  to  the  sugars 
containing  5  carbon  atoms.  These  pentosans  occur  in  various 
parts  of  plants  of  different  age  and  development.  The  amount 
increases  during  the  development  of  the  plants.  The  wood 
of  dicotyledonous  plants  is  richer  in  pentosans  than  that  of  the 
Coniferae.  It  is  thought  by  De  Chalmot  that  these  substances 
are  reserve  materials.  But  they  seem  of  importance  in  the 
formation  of  wood,  for  they  are  developed  at  this  stage. 

Arabinose  is  one  of  the  important  members  of  the  pentose 
series.  It  was  discovered  by  Scheibler  on  boiling  the  gum  of 
the  cherry  tree  with  sulphuric  acid.  This  compound  was  con- 

1  The  reaction  and  products  of  some  of  these  sugars  were  demonstrated. 


338        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

sidered  by  him  an  isomer  of  grape  sugar;  but  it  was  shown 
by  Kiliani  to  possess  the  formula  C5H10O5.  Although  the 
natural  arabinose  turns  the  plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  right, 
on  account  of  its  relation  to  /-glucose,  it  should  be  considered 
as  a  left  compound.  Artificially,  the  right-turning  arabinose 
may  be  made  from  glucose  by  a  building-down  process,  as  it 
were,  discovered  by  Wohl.  This  process  consists  in  passing 
from  a  sugar  richer  in  carbon  atoms  to  one  containing  fewer 
carbon  atoms. 

On  boiling  bran,  wood,  jute,  straw  and  like  substances, 
with  acids,  pentosan  compounds  are  obtained.  In  some  cases 
they  may  be  isolated,  or  their  presence  may  be  proved  by  the 
furfurol  reaction.  This  is  a  well-known  test  for  their  identi- 
fication. If  compounds  belonging  to  the  hexose  groups  be 
heated  with  acids,  they  yield  laevulinic  acid  (CH3COCH2CH2 
CO2H).  On  the  contrary,  pentose  compounds,  by  distillation 
with  strong  acids,  yield  furfurol  compounds,  which  easily 
pass  over  with  steam. 

The  portions  of  the  coffee  berry  insoluble  in  water,  when 
distilled  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  yield  furfurol  alde- 
hyde, which  demonstrates  the  presence  in  the  coffee  of  a  com- 
pound belonging  to  the  pentosans. 

By  warming  with  phloroglucin  and  hydrochloric  acid,  the 
pentosans,  as  also  all  compounds  which,  by  decomposition, 
yield  sugar  compounds  containing  5  carbon  atoms,  give  a 
cherry-red  color  reaction. 

Ribose,  a  colorless  syrup,  and  xylose,  wood  sugar,  are 
isomeric  with  arabinose. 

Rhamnose,  formerly  erroneously  called  "  isodulcite, "  is 
a  methylpentose.  It  is  obtained  from  datiscin  by  hydrolytic 
reaction,  and  by  the  same  method  from  different  glucosides. 

Fucose,  obtained  from  the  sea-tangle  or  grass  wrack,  is 
isomeric  with  rhamnose,  also  chinovose,  which  is  derived  from 
chinovite.  The  alcohols,  xylite  and  adonite,  belonging  to  the 
sugars  xylose  and  ribose,  correspond  to  arabite,  the  alcohol  of 
the  sugar  arabinose,  and  are  inactive. 

The  remaining  series  of  compounds,  which  chemically 
belong  to  the  same  class  as  the  sugars,  are  designated  as 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN   CARBOHYDRATES    339 

biose,  triose,  and  tetrose  sugars.  These  compounds  contain, 
respectively,  as  their  names  indicate,  2,  3,  and  4  carbon  atoms. 
The  latest  addition  to  this  list  is  the  number  containing  the 
smallest  number  of  carbon  atoms.  This  is  a  compound  with 
two  atoms  of  carbon,  chemically  known  as  glycol-aldehyde, 
and  may  be  obtained  from  brom-acetaldehyde,  by  means  of 
barium  hydrate  in  the  cold.  This  compound  possesses  all  the 
properties  to  be  expected  from  a  simple  sugar.  Of  these,  the 
property  of  being  converted  by  phenylhydrazine  into  the  gloxa- 
losazone  may  be  mentioned.  It  has  not  been  possible  to  obtain 
the  glycol-aldehyde  jrom  admixture  with  the  brom-aldehyde 
from  which  it  is  derived;  consequently,  the  behavior  of  this 
simple  sugar  with  ferments  has  not  been  proven.  Since  brom- 
compounds  act  as  a  poison  towards  yeast,  the  mixture  will 
probably  be  found  not  to  ferment. 

Triose  or  glycerose  is  considered  to  be  a  mixture  of  glyce- 
rine aldehyde  (CHOH  .  CHOH  .  CHO)  and  dioxyacetone 
(CHOH  .  CO  .  CHOH).  This  compound  is  a  syrup,  and  re- 
duces Fehling's  solution,  and  actively  ferments  with  yeast. 

The  chemical  sugar  next  higher  in  the  scale  is  the  tetrose 
sugar,  which  is  formed  by  the  oxidation  of  erythrit,  and  is 
named  therefrom  erythrose.  This  is  likewise  a  mixture  of  alde- 
hyde and  ketone  compounds.  The  regeneration  of  this  sugar 
from  its  osazone  has  not  as  yet  been  accomplished.  The  syn- 
thetical tetrose  probably  arises  by  a -kind  of  aldol  condensa- 
tion. It  has  been  isolated  in  form  of  its  osazone  only,  which 
is  identical  with  the  erythrosazone. 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  reference  to  aldol  condensation, 
that  it  is  of  two  kinds.  The  condensation  may  be  accompanied 
either  by  the  loss  of  a  molecule  of  water  or  by  no  loss  of  water. 
The  former  is  known  as  aldehyde  condensation,  when,  for 
example,  two  molecules  of  ethylaldehyde  are  heated  with  zinc 
chloride,  and  a  molecule  of  water  is  lost.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  aldehyde  must  stand  for  a  longer  time  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid;  thence  arises  a  condensation  product  known  as 
aldol  condensation. 

The  distinctions  between  the  sugars  characterized  as  the 
aldose  and  ketose  sugars  disappear  when  these  sugars  are 


340       PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

converted  into  the  osazones;  for  each  sugar  gives  identically 
the  same  osazone,  and  this  compound  affords  a  means  of  pass- 
ing from  a  sugar  of  one  class  to  a  sugar  of  the  other  class. 

The  other  division  of  natural  sugars,  or  the  ketone  sugars, 
of  which  fructose  is  the  type,  includes,  up  to  the  present  time, 
three  representatives  only.  Of  these  three  sugars,  only  the 
dextro-fructose  combines  with  prussic  acid;  consequently, 
the  synthesis  in  this  division  by  Kiliani's  method  is  limited. 
It  has  not  gone  beyond  the  fructo-heptose,  or  a  ketone  sugar 
containing  7  atoms  of  carbon. 

Fructose  is  the  fruit  sugar  to  which  the  sweetness  of  fruits 
is  chiefly  due.  This  sugar  crystallizes  from  alcohol  in  crystals 
belonging  to  the  rhombic  system,  whilst  the  crystals  of  glu- 
cose are  obtained  as  fine  needles.  Fructose  occurs  in  three 
modifications.  The  inactive  modification  is  of  historical  in- 
terest, since  it  was  the  first  synthetic  sugar  made  out  of  ma- 
terials obtained  by  synthetical  means. 

Of  the  methods  which  serve  for  the  direct  synthesis  of 
sugar  may  be  mentioned:  (i)  the  polymerizing  of  formyl- 
aldehyde  by  bases;  (2)  a  valuable  synthetical  means  is,  like- 
wise, the  reaction  which  corresponds  to  aldol  condensation; 
and  (3)  Kiliani's  method  has  been  of  untold  value  in  this  field ; 
(4)  the  artificially  made  sugars  may  be  separated  from  solu- 
tion in  form  of  their  osazone  compounds,  and,  in  most  cases, 
the  sugars  can  be  regenerated  from  these  compounds. 

In  all  cases  a  mixture  of  these  osazones  arises.  The  inactive 
phenyl-glucosazone  is  the  direct  source  of  the  inactive  fructose; 
for,  by  reducing  the  osone  derived  from  the  osazone,  a  ketose 
arises  which  agrees  in  all  respects  with  the  inactive  form  of 
fructose.  It  possesses  all  the  properties  of  the  natural  fruit 
sugar. 

By  the  reduction  of  this  inactive  fructose,  obtained  syntheti- 
cally, arises  the  inactive  mannite.  The  synthesis  of  the  active 
glucose  and  fructose  (the  natural  sugars)  may  be  made  from 
the  inactive  mannite  in  the  following  way:  By  treating  the 
inactive  mannite  with  the  suitable  oxidizing  agent,  it  will  be 
oxidized  to  the  inactive  mannose  and  the  inactive  mannonic 
acid;  the  inactive  mannonic  acid  can  be  split  into  its  active 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES    341 

constituents,  the  right  and  the  left  acids.  The  right  mannonic 
acid  yields,  by  reduction,  the  right  mannose  on  the  one  hand, 
while  on  the  other,  by  heating  with  chinolin  or  pyridin,  a  mole- 
cular change  takes  place,  and  the  d-gluconic  acid  is  obtained, 
which  yields  the  active  glucose.  Finally,  the  active  glucose  and 
mannose,  through  their  phenyl-glucosazones,  may  be  converted 
into  the  active  fructose.  Thus  the  problem  of  the  synthesis  of 
the  most  important  natural  sugars  has  been  accomplished. 
J  Sugar,  as  a  class,  is  thus  derived  not  only  from  sources 
pertaining  to  the  land  and  sea,  but  also,  from  the  brief  sketch 
just  drawn,  from  no  less  a  source  than  man's  intelligence. 

According  to  the  earliest  records,  the  sugar-cane,  the  main 
source  of  the  supply  of  saccharose,  or  cane  sugar,  was  culti- 
vated in  India  for  food  supply.  The  beet-sugar  industry  dates 
from  our  own  time. 

Cane  sugar  is  found  in  many  plant  species,  and  occurs  in 
grain  during  germination  at  the  expense  of  starch,  as  it  was 
observed  in  the  barley.  Cane  sugar  has  not  as  yet  been  made 
synthetically.  It  stands  as  one  of  the  atomic  peaks  still  to  be 
scaled.  The  discovery,  by  Biot,  of  the  power  of  cane  sugar 
solutions  to  turn  the  plane  of  polarized  light  led  Dubrunfaut, 
in  1847,  on  decomposing  cane  sugar,  to  discover  fructose,  the 
second  sugar  constituent  of  cane  sugar.  In  the  same  way,  we 
may  read  any  day  the  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  a 
chemical  spyglass,  which  will  reveal  the  pathway  to  the  syn- 
thesis of  this  member  of  the  chemical  chain. 

Maltose,  a  sugar  of  the  same  composition  as  cane  sugar, 
was  discovered  by  Dubrunfaut.  Maltose,  a  polysaccharide, 
has  been  made  synthetically. 

Milk  sugar,  which  also  belongs  to  this  same  division,  was 
separated  from  milk  as  early  as  the  year  1619,  by  Bartoletti, 
of  Bologna.  Demole  claims  to  have  made  it  synthetically. 

Starches,  gums,  cellulose,  and  mucous  compounds  are  of 
great  physiological  interest  in  their  bearing  on  plant  life,  and 
the  recent  thorough  investigations  of  the  sugar  groups  will 
not  be  unavailing  to  bring  forward  a  clearer  knowledge  of 
these  bodies.  There  are  many  sources  of  starch,  and  some 
peculiarities  among  the  different  kinds.  Lichenin,  from  Ice- 


342        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

land  moss,  and  inulin,  from  many  composital  plants,  act  the 
role  of  starch  in  the  plants  wherein  they  occur. 

A  brief  reference  may  be  given  here  to  compounds  like 
dextrin  and  laevulin,  which  stand  intermediary  between  the 
starches  and  sugars.  Dextrin  is  formed  from  starch  by  treat- 
ing with  dilute  acids,  or  by  diastase.  According  to  the  con- 
ditions, several  dextrin  kinds  may  be  separated.  A  crystal- 
line form,  produced  by  the  action  of  dilute  mineral  acids  on 
starch  for  months,  has  been  isolated.  Dextrin  gives  with 
iodine  a  red  coloration. 

Glucosides  are  compounds  of  grape  sugar  or  glucose  with 
another  substance,  and  naturally  find  place  in  a  study  of  car- 
bohydrates. Grape  sugar,  on  account  of  its  containing  an 
aldehyde  group,  is  capable  of  uniting  with  different  kinds  of 
chemical  bodies  to  form  these  compounds.  The  compound 
which  results  on  decomposing  a  glucoside  is  frequently  of  a 
complex  nature.  Glucosides  are  very  widely  spread  in  nature. 
In  many  cases  the  chemical  constitution  of  glucosides  is  well 
known,  and  some  of  these  compounds  have  been  made  syn- 
thetically. 

Recently,  Fischer  has  described  a  method  of  obtaining  glu- 
cosides synthetically.  By  the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid  on 
sugars,  alcohols,  oxyacids,  and  phenols,  he  obtained  conden- 
sation products  of  the  nature  of  glucosides.  These  compounds, 
like  other  glucosides,  do  not  react  with  Fehling's  solution  or 
with  phenyl-hydrazine.  But  they  are  decomposed  by  acids.1 

1  Also  ketones,  by  warming  and  treating  with  hydrochloric  acid,  are  changed 
into  glucosides.  Ketones  combine  with  sugar;  rhamnose  with  one  molecule; 
arabinose,  fructose,  and  glucose  unite  with  two  molecules  of  acetone;  sarbose, 
with  a  ketosane,  yields  a  beautiful  crystalline  compound.  By  employing  a  very 
weak  solution  to  work  with,  in  contradistinction  to  the  former  work  with  strong 
hydrochloric  acid,  o-and  )8-stereomers  were  obtained,  also  a  third  product,  an 
acetal  compound,  analogous  to  the  glucose  mercaptans.  In  the  beginning 
these  are  in  excess,  then  they  go  over  into  glucosides. 

The  ketose  sugars  react  with  alcohol,  in  presence  of  HC1,  more  quickly  than 
aldosans. 

Fischer  has  also  discovered,  as  a  between-product,  glucose-acetone,  which 
is  separated  in  fine,  colorless  needles.  This  compound  is  distinguishable  from 
the  glucose  di-acetone. 

A  new  glucoside,  similar  to  amygdalin,  but  of  a  simpler  formula,  named 
amygdonitril  glucoside,  has  been  recently  described  by  Fischer. 


SYNTHETIC  WORK   IN   CARBOHYDRATES    343 

These  simple  compounds  are  analogous  to  the  more  com- 
plex ones,  and  are  of  interest  for  their  bearing  on  the  natural 
glucosides.  There  is  no  essential  difference  between  the  sim- 
ple synthetical  glucosides  and  the  more  complicated  carbo- 
hydrates like  cane  sugar.  Indeed,  the  latter  should  be  con- 
sidered as  the  glucosides  of  sugar. 

The  list  of  natural  glucosides  is  a  long  one.  A  summary 
of  their  particular  occurrence  and  properties  is  unnecessary 
here.  But  a  glucoside,  for  example,  like  either  saponin  or 
phlorizin,  illustrates  the  fact  that  compounds  of  a  like  com- 
position are  found  in  closely  related  botanical  families.  Plants 
in  which  saponin  occurs  are  nearly  related  in  regard  to  their 
stage  of  evolution,  and  so  with  phlorizin-containing  plants. 
Phlorizin,  when  isolated  from  the  bark  of  the  apple,  cherry, 
or  plum  tree,  or  from  other  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Po- 
maceae,  is  a  crystalline  substance  of  a  white  color  when  quite 
pure.  Like  all  glucosides,  it  is  decomposed  by  dilute  acid  into 
glucose  and  a  second  product.  In  this  case  the  second  pro- 
duct is  phloretin. 

From  experiments  on  animals,  phlorizin,  when  taken  into 
the  body,  produces  a  condition  which  results  in  diabetes. 
The  amount  of  sugar  excreted  from  the  system  after  inges- 
tion  is  far  in  excess  of  what  could  be  produced  from  the  gly- 
cogen  of  the  liver,  nor  would  the  amount  of  glucose  in  the  glu- 
cosides explain  the  large  quantity  of  sugar  excreted.  But,  in 
fact,  according  to  Cremer,  the  phlorizin  passes  through  the 
system  unchanged,  and  the  sugar  which  arises  is  from  the 
proteids  of  the  body. 

The  very  latest  trend  of  investigation  is  to  show  that  the 
configuration  of  a  compound  has  its  place  in  the  explanation 
of  the  functions  of  an  organism.  Also,  the  reasons  for  the  fer- 
mentation of  certain  compounds  are  to  be  found  in  stereo- 
chemical  considerations. 

It  is  stated  in  a  recent  publication  that  the  most  ordinary 
functions  of  a  living  being  depend  more  upon  the  molecular 
geometry  than  upon  the  composition  of  the  food  material. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  fermentation  processes  are  brought 
about  by  minute  organisms,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  geo- 


344        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

metrical  configuration  of  the  ferment  coincides  with  that  of 
the  compound  which  it  attacks.  The  most  important  chem- 
ical agents  of  the  living  cell  are  the  optically  active  ones  of 
the  albuminoids,  and  these  possess,  consequently,  an  asym- 
metrically constructed  molecule.  Since  the  simple  albumi- 
noids result  from  the  sugars,  the  fact  is  given  in  proof  of  the 
same  geometrical  structure  for  these  two  classes  of  bodies. 
On  this  reasoning  it  has  been  claimed  that,  when  sugar  comes 
into  contact  with  the  albumen  of  the  yeast  cells,  fermentation 
takes  place  only  if  the  geometrical  form  of  the  sugar  molecule 
does  not  differ  too  widely  from  that  of  the  yeast  substance. 

In  some  recent  experiments,  Fischer  found  that  the  fer- 
ments invertin  and  emulsin  attack  only  the  glucosides  of  grape 
sugar,  whilst  they  leave  those  of  other  sugars  —  likewise 
starch,  salicin,  phlorizin,  and  other  synthetical  phenol-glu- 
cosides  —  unacted  on. 

However,  the  a-methyl  glucoside  is  decomposed  by  inver- 
tin and  not  by  emulsin;  but  with  the  methyl-glucoside  the 
reverse  occurs.  These  facts  are  given  to  show  that  a  different 
molecule  structure  alters  the  condition. 

The  influence  of  the  bacilli  on  chemical  changes  in  the 
body  is  recognized.  That  these  changes  do  occur  is  evident. 
Many  experiments  on  plant  tissues  show  this.  The  transfor- 
mation of  starch  into  sugar  by  the  Bacillus  anthracis  has  been 
shown  lately  by  cultivating  the  bacillus  on  a  potato.  After  a 
short  time,  the  surface  of  the  potato  gave,  not  the  blue  color 
of  starch  with  iodine,  but  the  red  color  of  dextrin.  Portions 
of  the  potato  were  then  placed  in  sterilized  water,  and,  after 
some  days,  on  testing  the  liquid,  it  reduced  Fehling's  solution. 
The  explanation  of  these  changes  is  supposed  to  rest  on  the 
configuration  of  the  molecule. 

From  the  survey  of  the  chart,  on  which  are  summarized 
the  synthesis  and  work  on  the  sugars,  the  attention  of  the  least 
interested  observer  will  be  called  to  this  fact, —  that  a  vast 
amount  of  work  has  been  accomplished  in  this  field,  and  the 
harmony  in  these  groups  between  facts  and  theories  is  signi- 
ficant. That  chemical  compounds  are  solids  and  occupy  space 
is  not  to  be  gainsaid,  but  there  must  be  an  adjustment  between 


SYNTHETIC  WORK  IN  CARBOHYDRATES    345 

scientific  facts  and  hypotheses.  To  pervert  or  carelessly  to 
observe  facts  in  order  to  make  them,  at  all  hazards,  fit  into 
theoretical  moulds,  is  the  highest  act  of  treason  of  which  the 
scientist  can  be  guilty.  Chemistry,  studied  from  a  geometri- 
cal basis,  is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  It  is  purely  arbi- 
trary to  settle  upon  any  particular  figure  to  express  the  group- 
ing of  the  atoms  in  space.  However,  the  tetrahedron  is  the 
simplest  expression  that  explains  the  fact. 

The  entire  subject  of  the  chemistry  of  sugars  would  be  the 
chaos  it  was  before,  without  the  aid  of  geometrical  specula- 
tions. These  at  once  bring  order  and  system  to  a  confusion 
of  facts. 

Hegel  names  time  and  space  the  accidents  of  true  exist- 
ence. In  the  consideration  of  the  space  relations  of  these  com- 
pounds a  step  is  taken  to  the  reality  which  lies  beyond  time 
and  space  and  the  imperfection  of  knowledge.  These  con- 
figurations represent  crudely  the  ideal  basis  of  what  is  called 
matter. 

The  next  query  that  will  occur  to  those  who  are  not  daily 
working  in  scientific  matters  is  this:  Is  the  subject  of  sugars, 
just  reviewed,  settled  for  all  times?  In  science  there  is  no 
fixed  ground.  The  true  object  of  scientific  research  is  to  seek 
truth  regardless  of  the  consequences,  and  on  our  plane,  truth 
is  evolving.  To  embrace,  when  found,  that  truth  which  seems 
the  more  evolved,  even  though  the  pet  hypotheses  and  results 
of  a  lifetime's  personal  effort  are  laid  aside,  is  the  true  aim  of 
endeavor.  This  is  the  true  scientific  spirit.  The  magnetic 
needle  oscillates  until  it  finds  its  resting-place  pointing  north- 
ward, and  the  chemist,  too,  should  oscillate  within  the  arc  of 
his  science  until  he  finds  the  currents  flowing  towards  light 
and  higher  truth. 

It  has  been  said  that  "every  man  who  would  do  anything 
well  must  come  to  it  from  a  higher  plane.  A  philosopher  must 
be  more  than  a  philosopher."  Plato  was  clothed  with  the 
powers  of  the  poet,  though  he  chose  to  use  his  poetic  powers 
to  an  ulterior  purpose.  In  the  love  for  facts,  the  other  side 
of  the  subject,  the  "mirror  image,"  so  to  speak,  must  not  be 
forgotten.  The  true  insight  will  come  from  the  employment 


346        PLANT  AND   ORGANIC   CHEMISTRY 

of  the  imagination  and  the  cultivation  of  the  higher  reasoning 
faculties.  This  insight  will  reveal  the  meaning  of  all  these 
phenomena,  and  the  oneness  underlying  all  things  will  become 
apparent.  To  cleanse  the  eye  from  seeing  only  the  grosser 
phenomena,  and  to  gain  the  perfect  faultless  eye  of  wisdom, 
compensated  Kunala,  the  king's  son,  for  the  loss  of  his  eye, 
which,  by  a  cruel  order,  was  torn  from  its  socket. 

The  more  apparent  phenomena  of  a  science  have  their 
true  place  when  studied  in  harmony  with  the  bold  outlines 
of  the  universe.  Call  these  outlines  philosophical  principles, 
cosmic  laws,  or  what  you  will,  but  the  facts  of  science,  culled 
from  many  fields,  only  confirm  the  words  of  long  ago:  "Our 
whole  existence  depends  on  our  thought;  thought  is  its  noblest 
factor;  in  thought  its  state  consists." 

Chemical  facts,  or  the  facts  of  any  science  when  regarded, 
not  as  the  end  of  endeavor,  but  as  the  means  to  an  end,  take 
their  true  place  in  the  intellectual  universe. 

The  facts  of  a  science  being  more  or  less  relative,  in  the 
search  of  truth  these  relative  facts  are  useful,  inasmuch  as 
they  indicate  the  principle  which  underlies  the  manifestations. 

The  ceaseless  change  and  interchange;  the  impermanence 
of  all  things  in  nature,  whether  pertaining  to  the  so-called 
inorganic  or  organic  life  phenomena,  is  expressed  by  the  mu- 
tations and  transformations  of  chemical  reaction. 

The  recurrent  properties  and  the  chemical  laws,  exhibited 
in  all  syntheses,  as  well  as  in  breaking-down  processes  of  com- 
pounds, are  in  unison  with  the  rhythmic  system  of  evolution 
from  which  nothing  in  this  universe  can  escape. 


LITERARY  PAPERS 


SCIENCE   AND   PHILOSOPHY   IN   ART1 

Wer  gegenwartig  iiber  Kunst  schreiben  will,  der  sollte  einige  Ahnung 
haben  von  dem,  was  die  Philosophic  geleistet  hat,  und  zu  leisten  fort- 
fahrt.  —  Goethe. 

SUMMARY  :  Art  as  one  of  the  highest  forms  of  scientific  and  philosophic 
expression  —  This  illustrated  by  the  Impressionist  school — Elements 
of  their  method  —  Triangulation  —  Examples  —  Motion  and  force  — 
Theory  of  lines  —  Theory  of  dissymmetry  —  Dissymmetry  in  mind 
and  thought  —  Technique  and  coloring  —  Psychological  effect  of  colors 
—  Focal  visual  point  and  perspective  —  Examples  —  Water  effects  — 
Tone  motifs  —  Philosophic  analysis  of  two  landscapes  —  Comments 
on  Renoir  and  Sisley  —  Conclusion. 

THE  mainspring  of  happiness  to  the  philosophic  mind  is  to 
penetrate  into  the  internal  structure  of  things,  and  to  analyze 
the  complex  to  its  ultimate  elements.  This  principle  has  been 
accepted  consciously  or  unconsciously,  and  underlies  the 
works  of  the  best  representatives  of  the  impressionist  school 
of  painting.  The  truths  of  geometry  and  the  laws  of  force  have 
been  also  recognized  by  them,  whether  consciously  or  un- 
consciously, as  the  only  correct  basis  upon  which  to  proceed, 
in  order  to  produce  on  the  mind  of  the  observer  those  sub- 
jective effects  which  are  the  highest  expression  of  Art,  and  of 
which  this  school,  par  excellence,  is  the  most  able  exponent. 
The  pictures  of  Claude  Monet  come  first  as  the  latest  art 
expressions  of  scientific  and  philosophic  thought. 

This  is  clearly  shown  both  by  the  treatment  and  the  sub- 
ject. The  simplest  elements  are  introduced  and  managed 

1  A  review  of  the  work  of  the  Impressionists  of  Paris  exhibited  at  the  Amer- 
ican Art  Association  Rooms,  New  York,  during  the  spring  of  1886.  By  "  Celen 
Sabbrin."  Printed  in  pamphlet  form.  Philadelphia,  Wm.  F.  Fell  &  Co.,  1220- 
24  Sansom  St.,  1886. 


350  LITERARY  PAPERS 

with  such  consummate  skill  as  to  form  a  combination  in  the 
highest  degree  complex.  These  pictures  are  the  work  of  a 
genius,  of  a  master  thinker,  who  feels  the  power  of  the  infi- 
nite, and  can  reflect  it  to  others.  This  familiar  association 
with  the  eternal  problems,  is  where  the  master  spirit  of  Claude 
Monet  manifests  itself.  None  in  art  before  him  has  ever  ap- 
proached so  near  the  domain  of  the  philosopher.  The  inflex- 
ible principles  of  geometry  give  the  form  to  his  charming  color 
harmonies.  The  line  between  the  aesthetic  and  the  intellectual 
is  so  lightly  traced  in  his  creations,  that  the  slightest  touch 
effaces  it,  and  thus  almost  proclaims  their  identity.  Nature 
is  rendered  more  lovely  by  this  revelation  of  her  mechanism 
and  the  sources  of  her  activity,  which  are  clearly  brought  out 
by  study  of  his  pictures;  though  to  those  minds  unprepared 
for  and  incapable  of  grasping  the  laws  of  the  universe,  these 
pictures  will  offer  little  of  interest.  But  to  the  thinker,  the 
canvases  of  Claude  Monet  are  records  of  what  the  sensitive 
mind  sees  in  nature.  It  is  not  the  pitiless  laws  of  growth  and 
decay  which  present  themselves,  but  humanity  with  its  hopes 
and  fears  shining  forth,  with  which  the  true  soul  alone  can 
sympathize. 

The  compositions  of  Claude  Monet  are  animated  evidences 
of  what  some  one  has  said,  that  the  true  source  of  knowledge 
can  be  derived  alone  from  the  subjective.  He  does  not  paint 
what  nature  is,  or  as  she  presents  herself  to  the  ordinary  mind 
through  the  medium  of  the  imperfect  senses,  but  he  paints 
those  thoughts  which  she  impresses  upon  him  by  means  of 
subtle  forces  to  which  only  the  sensitive  mind  responds. 

The  idea  of  triangulation  is  clearly  expressed  in  the  works 
of  most  of  the  followers  of  the  Impressionist  school.  It  would 
be  difficult  for  one  unacquainted  with  this  school's  teach- 
ings to  say  if  this  is  purely  unconscious  or  by  design.  It  is  not 
accidental.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  for  in  each  pic- 
ture of  Monet's,  as  well  as  of  those  other  painters  whose  pic- 
tures have  been  studied,  the  same  theory  is  expressed.  The 
attention  of  the  observer  is,  as  a  rule,  directed  along  the 
hypotenuse  of  the  right-angled  triangle.  This  line  is  used  as 
a  framework  upon  which  to  construct  the  picture.  The  lights 


SCIENCE  AND   PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        351 

and  shadows  and  objects,  when  introduced  for  the  main  effect, 
are  always  along  this  line.  Nor  is  there  only  one  line,  but 
a  parallel  series,  always  running  at  the  same  angle.  So  with 
shadows,  trees,  elevations,  depressions,  or  with  whatever  ob- 
jects the  picture  is  composed.  Numerous  examples  can  be 
brought  forward  from  his  pictures.  One  may  refer  to  No. 
250,  "Le  Jardin  de  Monet  a  Vetheuil." 

It  represents  a  garden  rising  from  the  foreground.  This 
is  occupied  by  an  open  space  a  little  to  the  left  of  a  right  line 
drawn  from  the  median  line  of  the  canvas.  This  space  is  a 
very  high  light,  with  deep  shadows  of  dark  blue.  On  each 
side  are  blue  figured  vases  filled  with  flowering  plants,  the 
shadows  on  the  space  and  vases  being  along  the  diagonal  line. 
A  staircase,  which  is  interrupted  by  a  narrow  terrace,  leads 
from  the  space  upward  to  the  right,  to  a  second  terrace,  on 
which  are  the  houses.  Nearly  the  entire  canvas  is  occupied, 
and  the  narrow  space  above  is  a  deep  blue  sky.  On  either 
side  of  the  staircase  are  numerous  tall  plants,  their  yellow 
flowers  rising  one  higher  than  the  other,  like  a  flight  of  steps. 
This  is  ended  by  a  lattice  work  running  along  the  second  ter- 
race. The  light  falls  along  the  hypotenuse  line  through  the 
flowers  to  the  left,  across  the  stone  steps,  and  vanishes  be- 
yond to  the  right-hand  lower  corner.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
shadows.  The  lattices  of  the  little  fence  around  the  terrace  are 
distinctly  seen  only  where  the  slats  are  arranged  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  hypotenuse.  The  left-hand  corner,  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  right  angle  of  the  triangle,  is  where  the  ob- 
jects are  most  clearly  represented,  and  the  coloring  is  richer 
in  tone.  As  the  right-hand  upper  corner  of  the  picture  is 
examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  objects  are  less  distinctly 
painted,  but  the  lines  that  correspond  to  the  direction  of 
the  hypotenuse  are  more  distinct,  and  the  color  of  the  picture 
seems  to  fade  away,  and  only  the  geometrical  basis  remains. 

The  sky  is  cloudless,  but  a  vapor-like  effect  can  be  detected 
by  close  observation,  draped  over  the  sky's  form,  in  direc- 
tions corresponding  to  the  hypotenuse.  This  light  drapery 
is  a  most  appropriate  clothing  for  the  heated  sky.  The  color- 
ing of  the  sky  is  remarkable;  the  appearance  is  one  familiar 


352 


LITERARY  PAPERS 


to  those  who  have  seen  it  in  southern  France  and  Spain.  The 
rich  colored  vault  is  apparently  brought  almost  within  reach. 
On  gazing  at  it  steadily,  the  eye  becomes  fatigued,  and  the 
sky  is  no  longer  blue,  but  of  a  leaden  color.  This  can  also  be 
seen  on  examining  the  picture  by  gaslight;  the  sky,  by  arti- 
ficial light,  loses  its  blue  tone  and  assumes  the  dull,  leaden 
hue.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  skies  of  Monet  are  the  most 
carefully  painted  of  any  parts  of  his  pictures. 

Two  little  children  stand  on  the  flight  of  steps  leading  to 
the  dwelling,  in  a  diagonal  line.  The  immediate  impression 
conveyed  by  this  scene  is  one  of  warmth  and  vitality.  Rich 
tones  of  green,  blue,  red,  and  orange  are  used  with  wondrous 
skill.  It  is  a  midsummer  scene;  the  vegetation  is  at  its  highest, 
the  air  sultry  and  heavy  with  heat.  It  is  a  picture  of  the  pre- 
sent moment,  and  the  only  pause  to  check  the  joy  which  such 
a  surrounding  offers  is  the  sky,  by  its  depth  suggestive  of  the 
impenetrability  to  human  understanding  of  the  termini  of 
life. 

Everywhere  is  seen  this  theory  of  triangulation.  It  is  the 
painter's  guide  for  composition.  In  these  color  idyls,  draw- 
ing is  scarcely  present.  The  artist's  mind  rests  upon  this  sim- 
ple geometrical  foundation,  and  his  thoughts  are  turned  into 
a  perfect  form,  because  true  to  nature.  Frequently  the  pic- 
tures can  be  divided  into  several  triangles;  these  triangles 
are  formed  by  shadows,  lights,  clouds,  fields,  the  sea,  houses, 
or  lines  of  trees,  and  are  always  significant  of  the  underly- 
ing truths  of  life,  which  these  painters  have  felt.  In  123,  "  Mail 
Post  at  Etretat,"  the  roll  of  the  waves,  the  dip  of  the  rock, 
and  the  direction  in  which  the  clouds  are  flying,  are  all  ex- 
pressed in  lines  corresponding  to  the  hypotenuse.  The  oblique 
parallelism  of  the  picture  is  indicative  of  movement.  Motion 
is  suggested  by  every  stroke  of  the  knife.  The  sunlight  is  com- 
ing from  the  same  direction  as  the  lines  run;  and  the  shadow 
of  the  great  rock  upon  the  water  is  in  motion.  As  the  observer 
moves  from  one  to  the  other  side  of  the  picture,  the  shadow 
seems  to  change  its  position.  The  effect  is  strange.  The  sea 
is  shimmering  in  the  sunlight  and  seems  to  be  many  fathoms 
deep.  Its  lovely  transparency,  which  is  finally  lost  in  depth, 


SCIENCE  AND   PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        353 

reminds  us  of  how  we  are  lured  on  in  our  search  after  truth  — 
simplicity  and  clearness  at  the  start,  ever-increasing  dimness 
following.  The  high  swells  of  the  sea  are  coming  on  in  a  stately 
procession,  each  bending  before  the  mighty  rocky  arch,  and 
then  rushing  upon  it  as  if  to  reach  to  its  summit.  These  great 
billows  are  composed  of  small  waves,  and  upon  them  rise 
smaller  ones  still,  until  the  little  ripples  come,  as  a  bright  smile 
upon  a  loved  face.  The  prevailing  color-tones  of  greens,  blues, 
and  pinks  offer  a  harmony  of  incomparable  composition. 
One  can  sniff  the  fresh  salt  breezes,  and  hear  the  heavy  thud 
of  the  waters  coming  against  the  rock.  On  viewing  such  a 
scene,  we  cannot  but  feel  that  we  are  looking  upon  more  than 
nature  has  to  offer  in  her  cold  way.  We  see  and  feel,  in 
addition  to  the  sea,  rock,  and  waves,  the  thoughts  which  the 
artist  had  on  painting  this  picture. 

The  theory  of  triangulation  should  be  considered  at  this 
stage.  It  was  stated  above  that  in  No.  123  movement  is  for- 
cibly expressed  by  all  the  objects  in  the  picture  being  painted 
along  parallel  diagonal  lines.  Motion  can  be  represented  only 
by  ideas  of  force.  Force  is  always  exerted  in  straight  lines, 
whether  as  initial  or  deflected  force.  The  triangle  is  selected 
as  the  simplest  figure  enclosing  space,  and  thus  represents 
the  lines  of  force  in  their  simplest  elements. 

The  hypotenuse  offers  the  opportunity  of  introducing  the 
idea  of  dissymmetry.  We  owe  to  M.  Pasteur  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  presenting  molecular  dissymmetry  in  its  widest 
bearing.  Dissymmetry  is  essential  to  the  conditions  of  life. 
The  results  of  synthesis  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist 
are  always  symmetrical,  because  the  forces  employed  are 
non-dissymmetrical.  On  the  contrary,  all  chemical  products 
made  in  the  plant  cell  are  dissymmetrical,  for  they  are  formed 
by  forces  of  dissymmetry.  How  should  the  chemist  break 
away  from  his  methods,  which  are,  from  this  point  of  view, 
obsolete  and  imperfect?  He  should  have  recourse  to  the  ac- 
tion of  solenoids,  of  magnetism,  of  the  dissymmetrical  move- 
ment of  light,  and  the  reactions  of  substances  themselves 
dissymmetrical.  A  vast  field  opens  here  for  future  investiga- 
tions into  the  origin  of  life.  Dissymmetry  is  not  only  the  basis 


354  LITERARY  PAPERS 

of  organic  life,  but  of  the  universe,  for  the  cosmic  forces  are 
dissymmetrical. 

Some  bodies  which  are  not  symmetrical  on  the  right  and 
the  left  are  constructed  on  a  general  plane  of  symmetry.  A 
chair  has  a  plane  of  symmetry ;  it  is  the  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  middle  of  the  back  and  of  the  seat.  But  the  two 
halves  of  the  chair,  separated  by  this  plane,  are  not  symme- 
trical; the  right  is  not  superposable  upon  the  left. 

There  is  a  marked  separation  between  the  organic  kingdom 
and  the  mineral  kingdom.  Dissymmetry  and  symmetry,  or 
function  and  crystallization,  are  the  modes  of  cosmic  forces. 
The  nearer  the  approach  to  the  symmetrical,  so  much  the 
nearer  to  a  condition  of  crystallization  and  cessation  of 
so-called  vital  functions.  The  transition  from  the  dissym- 
metrical to  the  symmetrical  is  at  the  expense  of  force,  con- 
sequently involves  motion.  Symmetry  is  equalized  force, 
dissymmetry  is  unequalized  force.  When  force  is  in  a  state 
of  equilibrium  it  is  symmetrical,  and  conversely. 

The  striving  of  the  human  mind  to  attain  the  symmetrical 
or  ideal  also  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  movement.  A  deeper 
meaning  underlies  this.  In  the  human  struggle  after  perfec- 
tion, or  symmetry  geometrically  expressed,  should  such  a  state 
be  reached,  every  further  progress  would  end  —  human  effort 
would  be  changed  to  a  stable  condition  or  one  of  crystalliza- 
tion. Perfection  would  be  fixation.  Absolute  truth,  if  achieved, 
would  terminate  all  thought,  as  the  crystal  terminates  all 
directive  motion.  A  geometrical  formula  expressing  all  life, 
would  be  also  expressive  of  all  death.  Relative  truth  is  dis- 
symmetrical; absolute  truth  symmetrical. 

That  this  conclusion  seems  to  be  where  scientific  thought 
will  eventually  drive  the  world  is  imminent,  and  the  thought 
crops  out  from  many  of  the  canvases  of  Monet.  Many  of  the 
tricks  which  painters  of  other  schools  employ  to  give  motion 
to  their  pictures,  are  disregarded  by  the  impressionists.  They 
have  penetrated  to  the  source  of  motion,  and  they  recognize 
force  as  the  cause.  This  fact  that  force  manifests  itself  in 
straight  lines  is  not  only  expressed  in  generality,  but  in  the 
details  or  technique  of  their  pictures.  On  close  inspection, 


SCIENCE  AND   PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        355 

their  pictures  are  masses  of  short,  straight  lines,  and  all  their 
effects  are  produced  in  this  way.  Curved  lines  are  only  em- 
ployed when  it  is  desired  to  express  the  idea  of  retardation, 
and  when  curves  are  used,  they  are  formed  of  short,  straight 
lines,  much  as  in  modern  geometrical  teachings,  a  circle  is 
held  to  be  formed  of  innumerable  straight  lines. 

The  right  angle  of  the  triangle,  which  includes  all  the  ele- 
ments of  the  picture,  falls  sometimes  outside  the  canvas.  The 
hypotenuse,  however,  is  never  absent.  Without  it,  there  could 
be  no  basis  for  the  composition.  Sometimes  the  right  angle 
of  the  triangle  is  occupied  with  the  most  prominent  objects 
of  the  painting,  and  to  these  the  focal  point  of  vision  is  directed. 
No.  184,  "The  Setting  Sun,"  by  Monet,  is  a  conspicuous  ex- 
ample of  this.  The  focal  point  of  vision  is  thrown  entirely  to 
the  left,  where  are  seen  the  coast  line  and  the  setting  sun;  to 
the  right  is  a  vast  expanse  of  sea.  A  mistiness  pervades  the 
picture;  the  sky  and  sea  blend  to  shut  off  forever  from  the 
soul  the  knowledge  of  what  lies  beyond. 

Another  extraordinary  picture  is  No.  198,  "Fog  Effect  near 
Dieppe."  The  sandy  bank  and  trees  are  to  the  right.  The 
technique  and  coloring  of  these  trees  are  startling;  straight 
lines  mark  the  canvas,  reproducing  this  mood  of  nature  with 
a  masterly  insight.  The  sea  dashes  with  violence  against  the 
coast.  A  faint  light  shines  through  the  waves,  and  the  foam 
rests  on  their  proud,  crested  heads,  like  a  bridal  wreath.  On 
just  such  a  coast-line  might  life  have  originated,  as  the  sport 
of  accident,  by  the  cruel  sea,  indifferent  to  the  origin,  progress, 
and  destiny  of  this  life  to  which  she  had  given  birth.  The 
color-tints  of  pinks  and  grays  delineate  the  outlines. 

Monet's  pictures  are  noticeable  for  the  psychological  effect 
they  produce  by  their  coloring.  His  colors  are  like  an  orchestra 
of  instruments  in  perfect  tune,  and  the  pitch  of  his  scale  is 
given  by  the  foundation  tone  of  his  pictures. 

On  close  examination,  it  would  be  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  the  canvases  were  first  coated  by  a  uniform  tint  of  paint ; 
this  is  the  pitch  to  which  all  the  other  colors  are  tuned,  and 
the  different  effects  in  his  pictures  are  produced  by  heavy 
straight  lines  of  suitable  colors,  according  with  the  pitch. 


356  LITERARY  PAPERS 

For  Monet's  pictures  are  essentially  harmonies  of  color-tones, 
in  distinction  to  Renoir's  pictures,  which  are  color  discords. 

The  color-scale  of  Monet's  pictures  is  original,  and  essen- 
tially calculated  to  produce  upon  the  observer  an  intense  psy- 
chological impression.  As  the  pitch  is  high  or  low,  so  his  colors 
vary  in  strength.  Some  of  his  most  beautiful  water  and  sea 
effects  are  reached  by  combinations  of  pale  Nile  green,  blue 
and  violet  tints,  of  varying  shades. 

Some  of  his  views  are  bathed  in  an  atmosphere  of  magic 
grace  and  purity.  The  tone  pitch  is  often  taken  from  the  visual 
forms.  In  No.  131,  "Cap  D'Antifer,"  the  prevailing  tones 
are  violet  and  lilac  colors.  It  is  a  late  afternoon  scene;  the 
cliff  stands  out  with  wonderful  distinctness;  along  its  rugged 
edge  runs  the  road,  twisting  and  turning,  but  always  true  to 
a  parallelism  with  the  coast-line,  our  line  of  dissymmetry.  The 
light  through  the  picture  follows  the  same  line,  though  the 
light  is  symmetrical  with  regard  to  the  oblique  line,  for  it  is 
equal  in  intensity  on  both  sides,  and  it  fades  away  equally 
towards  the  right  of  the  picture. 

To  obtain  their  full  effect,  the  pictures  of  the  Impression- 
ists should  be  studied  in  the  light  in  which  the  scene  was 
painted;  and  this  is  a  very  important  point  to  be  remembered 
in  judging  the  works  of  these  artists.  A  noticeable  example  of 
this  was  a  picture  by  Besnard,  "By Candle  Light."  The  light 
of  day  detracts  a  great  deal  from  the  beauty  of  this  painting. 

Not  only  does  Monet  excel  in  painting  water  in  motion, 
but  also  in  representing  it  when  at  rest.  No.  28,  "Breaking 
of  Ice  on  the  Seine,"  is  an  example.  The  middle  distance  is 
the  point  to  which  the  eye  is  attracted.  We  -feel  how  cold  the 
water  must  be.  Its  marvelous  transparency  and  depth  are 
startling,  and  in  contrast  with  the  opacity  of  the  blocks  of 
ice  floating  on  its  surface.  It  is  like  a  silvered  mirror,  with 
here  and  there  the  coating  effaced.  The  foreground  is  rough, 
and  in  blue,  green,  and  gray  tints.  The  picture  is  constructed 
on  the  principle  of  dissymmetry,  and  the  effects  of  distance, 
depression,  and  rising  ground  are  well  portrayed.  The  valley, 
between  the  lines  of  trees  which  follow  the  bend  of  the  river 
and  the  distant  hills,  is  observable  only  after  long  study. 


SCIENCE  AND   PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        357 

"The  Low  Tide  at  Pourville,"  by  Claude  Monet,  shows 
the  facility  of  this  artist.  The  cloudy  sky  is  reflected  in  the 
moist  sands,  and  the  eye  is  carried  along  the  beach  to  the 
distant  blue  sea,  which  is  painted  with  much  distinctness. 

In  many  of  Monet's  pictures,  the  middle  or  far  distances 
are  brought  out  with  great  force.  It  is  a  natural  inclination 
of  the  mind,  on  viewing  a  scene,  to  gaze  beyond  the  immediate 
foreground.  Consequently,  Monet's  foregrounds  are  usually 
indistinct,  and  especially  in  his  highest  psychological  studies, 
where  this  indistinctness  of  foreground  has  a  philosophical 
bearing. 

In  point  of  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  see  clearly  more  than 
one  object  at  a  time;  all  surroundings  are  less  distinct,  or  re- 
flect the  color  of  the  focal  visual  object.  Monet's  "  Cabin  at 
Pourville,"  No.  169,  illustrates  this  statement.  The  central 
object  of  interest  is  a  little  shrimp-colored  house.  The  atmo- 
spheric conditions  doubtless  influence  the  mind  of  the  observer, 
but  the  tone  most  deeply  impressed  on  the  house  is  reflected 
on  the  entire  scene,  on  the  hill  beyond,  and  even  in  the  sky. 
The  same  idea  is  brought  out  in  Renoir's  pictures,  where  the 
background,  though  often  very  indistinct,  echoes  the  pre- 
vailing rich  colors  of  the  figure  which  occupy  the  foreground. 

Monet's  No.  168,  "The  Seine  at  Giverny,"  is  a  picture 
which  at  once  attracts  attention.  The  view  suggests  calmness 
and  purity.  A  delicious  fragrance  steals  over  the  senses,  and 
the  delicate  perfume  of  lilacs  permeates  the  mind.  The  trans- 
parency and  depth  of  the  water  are  finely  represented.  The 
shadows  of  the  trees  growing  along  the  banks  are  reflected 
in  the  water,  and  again  carry  out  the  theory  of  dissymmetry. 
For  clearness  and  crispness  of  coloring,  this  picture  is  excelled 
by  none  in  the  collection. 

No.  108,  "Scene  at  Port  Villers,"  carries  out  several  of  the 
originalities  of  Monet's  style.  The  canvas  is  covered  by  a  thin 
layer  of  a  pale-gray  tint.  In  places  there  is  apparently  an 
absence  of  all  color,  and  the  canvas  itself  shows.  The  pre- 
vailing tones  are  pinkish  grays.  The  last  layers  of  color  are 
laid  on  very  heavily,  and  thus  the  scene  is  admirably  repre- 
sented. The  theory  of  triangulation  and  dissymmetry  is  clearly 


358  LITERARY  PAPERS 

expressed  by  the  lines  of  trees  to  the  right,  forming  the  hypo- 
tenuse. The  edge  of  the  bank  is  a  transverse  line,  prominently 
shown,  and  the  ground  rises  above  it  in  ragged  outline  against 
the  sky,  broken,  dissymmetrical.  The  hill  is  reproduced  in 
the  river  by  reflection.  This  general  effect  is  one  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  symmetry  in  any  of  Monet's  works.  The  sub- 
jective side  of  this  picture  is  produced  by  adherence  to  sim- 
ple and  exact  principles.  The  ground- plan  is  triangular,  and 
the  tints  are  in  those  colors  which  subjectively  produce  the 
sensations  of  chilliness. 

Monet's  "Morning  at  Pourville,"  No.  216,  is  an  interest- 
ing study  of  shadow  effects.  The  rock  that  boldly  rises  in 
the  foreground  is  reflected  in  the  rolling  sea  as  a  triangle. 
Here  let  us  note  how  frequently  any  distinct  object  in  the  fore- 
ground of  Monet's  pictures  is  sure  to  be  inorganic,  inanimate, 
massive,  stable,  recalling  the  blind,  immutable  forces  of  un- 
sympathetic nature.  The  extraordinary  sheen  of  the  water 
is  most  noticeable;  straight  lines  of  light  aid  the  mind  to  realize 
that  it  is  real  water  upon  which  the  observer  looks.  The  de- 
lusion is  complete.  The  gallery  and  all  surroundings  vanish, 
and  the  sea  spreads  before  you,  with  its  restlessness.  Inno- 
cence is  depicted  upon  the  siren's  countenance.  In  the  past, 
how  many  adventurous  mariners  she  has  lured  on  to  repose 
upon  her  trustful  bosom,  only  to  drag  them  to  her  distant 
abode,  the  dwelling  of  death! 

When  Monet  obtains  his  best  water  effects  for  depth  and 
transparency,  he  employs  thin,  delicate  colors.  Pale  green 
and  blue  exert  a  marked  psychological  influence  upon  the 
aesthetic  emotions,  reviving  peaceful  or  agitating  thoughts  in 
the  soul,  as  the  conditions  of  the  picture  exact.  For  late  even- 
ing effects,  salmon  pinks  and  dark  greens  are  used  with  telling 
results,  as  in  No.  219,  "Evening  on  the  Seine." 

The  "Wheat  Field,"  of  Monet,  No.  158,  will  instantly  attract 
the  observer,  as  more  than  a  landscape;  in  fact,  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense,  none  of  Monet's  pictures  are  landscapes,  but  men- 
tal studies. 

The  middle  distance  is  the  field  of  wheat,  ripe,  and  await- 
ing the  labor  of  man,  to  be  applied  to  its  greatest  usefulness. 


SCIENCE  AND   PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        359 

The  rich  salmon  coloring  of  the  wheat  inspires  the  feeling  of 
hope  in  the  human  breast,  and  encourages  the  struggle  of  toil. 
The  sky  above  echoes  this  happy  thought  of  effort  being  re- 
warded. The  few  red  poppies  at  the  sides  of  the  immediate 
foreground  add  to  the  brilliant  scene  of  the  present,  and  it 
seems  as  if  for  the  minute  nature  had  relented,  and  given 
promise  to  the  weary  worker  of  a  haven  of  eternal  joy.  The 
strong  red  hues  of  the  foreground,  tinged  with  this  most  potent 
of  colors,  are  suggestive  of  the  vigor  of  life,  the  plentitude  of 
the  powers;  and  soon  they  fade  into  the  uncertain  shades, 
the  feebler  tones  of  the  farther  distance. 

The  eye  travels  beyond  the  wheat,  past  trees  and  green 
fields,  to  the  distant  blue  hills,  and  just  beyond  the  salmon- 
pink  color  is  discernible,  also  suggesting  the  thought  of  toil. 
The  pinkish  haziness  of  the  far  distance  suggests  a  town  and 
busy  industries,  they  in  turn  some  day  to  be  silenced  and  dead, 
even  as  the  wheat-field  after  the  harvest  will  leave  only  stub- 
ble and  straw.  The  wheat  will  relieve  the  immediate  hunger 
of  man,  and  the  industry  that  of  his  soul's  longing,  but  only 
as  a  temporary  aliment.  This  picture,  a  color  poem,  is  a  step 
in  advance  of  art;  it  is  the  cry  of  humanity. 

Wagner,  in  his  operas,  has  used  with  telling  effect  his  tone 
motifs.  Our  ear  always  tells  us  what  our  eye  should  see  on 
the  stage ;  the  motif  is  indicative  of  the  personality  of  his  char- 
acters, or  forewarns  us  what  we  have  to  expect.  So  with  these 
creations  of  Monet,  his  tone  motifs  are  his  combinations  of 
colors.  He  has  certain  color-scales  which  he  uses,  and  to 
which  the  mind  responds.  This  is  too  well  marked  to  be  passed 
over,  and  in  so  many  of  his  pictures,  which  are  eminently 
philosophical  studies,  his  use  of  reds  and  peculiar  greens  is 
constant. 

"A Farm,"  No.  135  of  the  catalogue,  is  a  study  in  red-orange 
tones.  The  axes  of  dissymmetry  are  the  lines,  lights  and  shad- 
ows of  the  picture,  and  are  so  used  as  to  be  suggestive  of  mo- 
tion. The  key-note  of  the  scene  is  force.  In  the  foreground 
is  a  marshy  pond,  on  which  are  floating  some  ducks;  a  road- 
way limits  the  extent  of  the  water,  and  the  row  of  piles  which 
support  the  side  of  the  road  is  one  of  the  diagonal  lines.  The 


360  LITERARY  PAPERS 

fence  back  of  the  road,  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  the  lights  and 
shadows,  the  rising  ground,  the  outline  of  the  roofs  against 
the  sky,  and  the  clouds,  all  follow  the  direction  of  the  hypo- 
tenuse. The  visual  focus  is,  as  usual,  dissymmetrical,  and  in 
the  diagonal.  It  is  to  the  left  of  the  centre  of  the  scene.  The 
strong  sunlight  pouring  down  upon  the  side  of  the  farm-house, 
and  the  intense  shadows  of  the  trees  upon  it,  all  indicate  energy, 
the  very  power  of  the  cosmic  forces  themselves.  The  reddish- 
orange  color  of  the  roof  contrasted  with  the  sky  gives  to  the 
latter  a  greenish  tinge,  which  adds  to  the  color  harmony  of 
the  whole.  The  two  sides  of  the  picture  differ  as  to  intensity 
of  coloring  and  distinctness  of  form,  and  in  these  respects 
further  illustrate  the  dissymmetrical  principles  which  underlie. 

Monet's  Nos.  270,  " Poppies  in  Bloom,"  and  212,  ''Land- 
scape at  Giverny,"  are  companion  pictures,  inasmuch  as  one 
is  the  continuation  of  the  other,  and  an  expression  of  philo- 
sophical thought.  The  prevailing  color-tones  of  the  two  pic- 
tures are  brilliant  reds  and  peculiar  bluish-greens.  Attention 
was  called  above  to  this  color  rule,  as  being  used  in  what  are 
most  properly  the  highest  philosophical  studies  of  this  artist. 
As  art  expressions  of  scientific  and  philosophical  thought, 
these  two  pictures  occupy  the  most  prominent  place  of  any 
in  the  collection. 

No.  270  is  the  best  illustration  of  the  theory  of  triangula- 
tion  to  be  found  in  Monet's  pictures.  From  the  foreground 
and  running  diagonally  from  left  to  right  is  the  poppy-field, 
and  the  ground  rising  above  it  forms  a  green,  grassy  amphi- 
theatre, closing  out  from  sight  all  objects  beyond  the  fore- 
ground, thus  inviting  to  progress.  The  narrow  expanse  of  sky 
is  seen  above  the  hilly  bank.  Its  depth  is  interminable,  and 
a  sense  of  solemnity  steals  over  the  observer.  He  is  brought 
most  terribly  near  the  source  and  origin  of  things.  The  sky 
is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  poppy-field  and  hill,  where  it  is 
the  present  that  offers.  Here  is  the  beginning  of  life's  course. 
Unconscious  of  what  is  back  of  the  hill,  the  soul  is  absorbed 
by  the  immediate;  though  she  may  step  forward,  through  the 
gay- flowered  field,  onward  to  her  future,  the  past  is  locked 
in  mystery.  Nature  throws  no  obstacle  to  her  progress;  there 


SCIENCE  AND  PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        361 

is  no  warning  hand  to  hold  the  soul  from  running  to  her  own 
destruction;  and  the  indifference  of  nature  to  suffering  or 
happiness  is  terrible  to  contemplate.  The  grassy  bank  is  cov- 
ered with  many  colored  grasses,  the  different  colors  giving 
the  effect  of  light  and  shadow.  These  different  patches  are 
formed  like  triangles.  The  entire  picture  can  be  looked  upon 
as  the  interior  of  a  geometrical  solid.  The  poppy-field  is  a  par- 
allelogram; diagonal  lines  run  across  it  from  one  to  the  oppo- 
site corner,  and  these  large  triangles  can  in  turn  be  divided 
into  smaller  ones.  The  effect  of  triangulation  can  be  well 
seen  at  a  distance,  but  is  very  much  plainer  by  a  near  inspec- 
tion of  the  canvas.  It  is  significant  that  in  one  of  Monet's 
highest  expressions  of  thought  the  unbending  principles  of 
geometrical  form  are  the  most  clearly  discernible.  It  may 
be  claiming  too  much  to  say  that  mathematical  principles  are 
the  basis  of  all  truth,  but  that  the  two  are  nearly  related  must 
be  acknowledged. 

No.  212,  "A  Landscape  at  Giverny,"  is  an  expression  of 
hopelessness,  of  the  unattainableness  of  absolute  truth,  and 
a  confirmation  of  science's  teachings,  in  the  ultimate  useless- 
ness  of  human  effort.  To  the  appreciative  such  a  picture 
would  be  unbearable  as  a  constant  companion ;  though  it  is 
the  crowning  effort  of  Monet's  genius,  and  proclaims  him  the 
philosopher  of  the  Impressionist  school. 

The  mathematical  principles  are  fully  expressed  in  this 
picture,  and  vivify  the  thought  that  geometry  is  soulless,  and 
that  natural  forces  are  relentless  and  pitiless.  In  the  imme- 
diate foreground  runs  a  gay  poppy-field,  which  might  well  be 
the  poppy-field  of  No.  270  continued,  and  we  may  accept  it 
as  the  continuation  of  the  soul's  history.  Bounding  this  field, 
along  a  diagonal  line,  are  some  deserted  houses;  beyond,  and 
to  the  right,  are  a  series  of  fields  and  lines  of  trees  alternating. 
A  bright  light  strikes  one  of  these  fields,  and  gives  the  effect 
of  water.  On  and  on  the  eye  travels  to  the  right  corner  of  the 
background,  where  the  deep  blue  of  the  hill  range  looms  up. 
Above  all  lowers  a  heavy  gray  sky,  blank  and  cheerless. 
Speculation  can  go  no  further;  what  is  beyond  these  hills  may 
never  be  known.  The  heart  weakens  and  the  soul  is  faint  at 


362  LITERARY  PAPERS 

what  she  sees.  It  is  the  end  of  the  struggle  of  the  human  race; 
all  work  and  thought  have  been  of  no  avail;  the  fight  is  over 
and  inorganic  forces  proclaim  their  victory.  The  scene  is  a 
striking  reality.  Nature  is  indifferent,  and  her  aspects  are 
meaningless,  for  what  indications  of  the  unavoidable  end  come 
from  seeing  that  gay- flowered  field  ?  It  is  a  mockery,  and  that 
mind  which  has  once  felt  the  depth  of  the  thoughts  expressed 
in  this  painting,  can  only  seek  safety  in  forgetfulness. 

Monet  does  not  offer  any  solution  to  the  result  to  which 
his  pictures  lead.  He  is  occupied  in  giving  expression  to  the 
most  serious  truths  of  our  life.  He  is  recording  the  chronicles 
of  modern  thought. 

The  pictures  of  Renoir  and  Sisley  are  of  great  interest,  as 
offering  solutions  to  the  ideas  that  run  through  Monet's 
pictures;  or,  if  not  solutions,  at  least  those  painters  may  be 
considered  in  the  light  of  physicians,  who  are  engaged  in  alle- 
viating human  suffering,  so  that  the  patient  may  forget  the 
incurableness  of  his  malady. 

Renoir  offers  a  course  which  so  many  of  our  day  gladly 
follow.  "The  Breakfast  at  Bougival"  and  his  studies  of  the 
nude  clearly  show  the  direction  of  his  thought.  The  latter 
are  void  of  expression.  The  idea  of  the  immediate  present  in 
its  sensual  aspects  is  expressed  by  subject  and  treatment.  The 
figures  are  prominently  in  the  foreground.  The  coloring  is 
rich  and  intense,  and  the  backgrounds  are  indistinct,  and 
echo  the  coloring  of  the  objects  of  the  foreground.  He  would 
teach  us  not  to  look  into  the  distant,  for  all  there  is  indiffer- 
ent; we  can  never  outline  the  forms  of  the  future.  Life  is  im- 
penetrable, and  why  should  we  trouble  ourselves  with  what 
will  only  result  in  failure  and  disappointment?  Renoir  has 
presented  this  side  of  the  situation  with  a  masterly  hand,  but 
the  dangers  of  his  teaching  are  great,  and  the  character  who 
hopes  to  forget,  by  these  means,  is  utterly  lost  to  himself  and 
to  others. 

Sisley 's  pictures  offer  scenes  of  industry,  home  life,  and  the 
peace  that  results  from  leading  an  honorable  and  pure  career. 
He  sings  the  song  of  work.  His  pictures  are  beautiful,  and 
if  examined  in  this  spirit,  are  powerful  lessons. 


SCIENCE  AND   PHILOSOPHY  IN  ART        363 

In  the  Eternal  City  built  on  Seven  Hills  there  is  a  piazza 
from  which  three  streets  lead  into  different  districts  of  the 
city.  This  great  piazza,  with  its  open  gate  and  plashing  foun- 
tain, is  the  expression  of  the  reality  forced  upon  us  by  scien- 
tific thought,  and  the  wearied  pedestrian,  who  cannot  rest  here, 
must  decide  which  of  the  three  streets  he  will  follow.  Who  can 
say  by  what  accident  his  steps  may  be  turned  to  the  way  which 
Renoir  has  depicted,  or  to  the  flower-strewn  path  of  Sisley, 
or  to  the  embrace  of  dogma?  Each  one  of  these  three  vias 
leads  across  Rome,  and  at  a  life's  close,  when  standing  on  the 
walls  of  that  city,  and  the  hour  for  the  fatal  plunge  into  the 
moat  has  come,  who  can  say,  but  the  soul  alone,  if  the  choice 
has  been  well? 


THE  DRAMA  IN  RELATION  TO  TRUTH1 

THE  patriotic  spirit,  or  love  of  country,  as  an  incidental  senti- 
ment leading  upward  to  a  wider  love  embracing  all  countries 
and  races,  has  its  place  in  the  individual's  and  nation's  de- 
velopment. 

The  fond  striving  of  the  patriot  should  be  a  means,  not  the 
end  of  endeavor.  Lotze,  in  his  last  work,  which  is  a  summary 
of  his  comprehensive  system,  opposes  strenuously  "the  dei- 
fication of  the  state,  a  manifestation  of  which  he  sees  in  the 
fact  that  the  state  is  conceived  of  as  an  end  in  itself." 

A  patriotism  limited  exclusively  to  any  particular  land  is 
not  desirable  in  itself,  since  this  kind  of  patriotism  is  a  species 
of  selfish  love,  and  must  tend  to  contract  certain  sides  of  the 
human  character  which  are  very  important  sides  to  expand. 
But  the  love  of  country,  or  a  localized  patriotism  so  strongly 
innate  in  the  hearts  of  many,  is  a  divine  germ  which  will  grow, 
if  nurtured,  into  a  perfected  bloom  of  universal  love. 

The  advance  of  peoples  is  correlated  with  rightly  directed 
individual  effort.  The  progressive  unfolding  of  the  state  and 
nation  depends  upon  the  earnestness  of  the  effort  and  the 
highest  possible  development  of  the  individual.  To  find  out 
the  paths  leading  to  truth,  love,  and  charity,  and  to  reverence 
the  high  endeavor  of  others,  whether  at  home  or  abroad,  is 
a  goal  for  individual  effort.  This  effort  of  the  individual  is 
the  first  step  toward  a  free  and  noble  life.  Once  to  have 
attained  these  vistas,  is  to  realize  the  inseparableness  of  the 
development  of  the  multitude  from  that  of  the  individual. 

In  the  cause  of  truth,  the  drama  and  stage  may  be  used  as 
strong  levers  in  overturning  false  idols. 

1  Paper  read  before  the  New  England  Women's  Club,  December  10,  1894. 
The  subject  given  to  be  treated  was,  "The  Relation  the  Drama  has  to  Patriot- 
ism." Printed  in  Poet-Lore,  pp.  149-154,  March,  1895. 


THE   DRAMA   IN  RELATION  TO   TRUTH     365 

The  history  of  the  drama  shows  that  dramatic  art  has  been 
a  means  used  to  depict  events  in  the  religious  and  historic 
development  of  nations.  The  stage  may  serve  as  a  reflector 
for  the  customs  and  manners  of  the  times.  It  is  a  chronicle 
of  action.  A  writer  regards  the  stage  as  an  "agency  of  civili- 
zation," and  indeed  it  may  not  inappropriately  be  called  the 
school-house  of  the  world. 

The  drama  has  also  been  a  favorable  mode  of  popular  di- 
version and  instruction,  by  strongly  appealing  to  the  emo- 
tions as  well  as  to  the  finer  faculties  of  human  perception. 
Numerous  are  the  play-writers  of  the  past  who  dwell  upon 
the  records  of  deeds  of  heroism  and  conquest,  and  who,  by 
recitals  of  the  horrors  of  bloodshed  and  crime  in  the  name  of 
patriotism,  have  more  often  pictured  the  greed  of  gain. 

The  drama  of  Greece  was  intimately  blended  with  the  re- 
ligious and  patriotic  sentiments  of  the  nation.  No  less  were 
these  sentiments  present  in  the  No  plays  of  Japan.  The  origin 
of  the  drama  in  Japan  is  attributed,  early  in  eleven  hundred, 
to  Iso- no-Zenji,  called  the  "  mother  of  the  Japanese  drama," 
although  these  so-called  dramatic  performances  were,  doubt- 
less, exhibitions  of  dancing.  True  dramatic  representations 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  at  a  later  date.  Learning  in  those 
days  was  in  the  hands  of  men  and  women  who  composed  the 
court  circles;  women  were  prominent  as  writers,  and  many 
beautiful  fragments  of  their  literary  skill  have  come  down  to 
us.  Originally  the  nobles  took  part  in  the  performances  of 
the  No  plays.  The  imperial  theatre  was  attached  to  the  court, 
and  the  ladies  of  the  household  attended.  The  brocaded  cos- 
tumes of  the  actors,  even  to  the  present  day,  are  historical 
monuments  of  the  past,  and  keep  alive  the  traditions  of  those 
ideal  heroes  so  dear  to  the  Japanese  patriot.  Likewise  in  China, 
the  drama,  theoretically,  was  elevated  in  tone,  and  the  penal 
code  threatened  those  who  misused  their  talents  with  pun- 
ishment in  purgatory  after  death.  Among  the  masterpieces 
of  Chinese  dramatic  art,  is  one,  "The  Sorrows  of  Han,"  which 
appeals  to  patriotism. 

Along  the  gamut  of  dramatic  writings  might  be  cited  nu- 
merous plays  written  especially  with  the  purpose  of  noting 


366  LITERARY  PAPERS 

some  patriotic  event.  It  must  suffice  here  to  take  for  granted 
the  existence  of  a  large  dramatic  literature  bearing  on  the 
subject.  National  drama  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  a 
nation's  literature;  but  to  be  truly  great,  dramatic  creation 
needs  to  treat  of  noble  subjects  which  shall  stand  as  truths 
for  all  races  and  times,  irrespective  of  party  feeling  or  creeds. 

An  old  writer  has  said,  "You  will  do  the  greatest  service  to 
the  State  if  you  shall  raise,  not  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  but  the 
souls  of  the  citizens;  for  it  is  better  that  great  souls  should 
dwell  in  small  houses,  than  for  mean  slaves  to  lurk  in  great 
houses."  Again,  the  same  writer  says:  "Truth  is  a  thing  im- 
mortal and  perpetual,  and  it  gives  to  us  a  beauty  which  fades 
not  away  in  time  nor  does  it  take  away  the  freedom  of  speech 
which  proceeds  from  justice." 

Among  later  dramatic  writers,  to  Browning  may  be  given 
the  appellation  of  the  apostle  of  truth.  Of  truth  he  says,  — 

"Truth  is  the  proper  policy:   from  truth  — 
Whate'er  the  force  wherewith  you  fling  your  speech,  — 
Be  sure  that  speech  will  lift  you  by  rebound, 
Somewhere  above  the  lowness  of  a  lie!" 

And  elsewhere  he  writes,  "Love  bids  touch  truth,  endure 
truth,  and  embrace  truth;  though,  embracing  truth,  love 
crush  itself." 

In  many  passages  of  his  dramatic  writings,  he  insists  upon 
the  full  play  of  truth  in  word  and  action;  and  if  truth  be  veiled, 
or  perverted  from  its  direct  course,  the  results  are  fatal.  In 
the  long  range  of  Browning's  writings  is  the  obligation  in- 
sisted upon  again  and  again  that  he  who  would  be  a  neophyte 
of  the  noble  way,  must  learn  to  pick  out  truth  from  the  tan- 
gled meshes  of  the  life  around  him.  Truth  is  the  first,  the 
middle,  the  last  of  things. 

In  the  dramatic  poem  of  "In  a  Balcony,"  at  the  final  scene, 
where  Norbert,  Constance,  and  the  Queen  meet,  and  the  Queen 
hears  Norbert's  words  to  Constance,  "Now  you  know  that 
body  and  soul  have  each  one  life,  but  one:  And  here  's  my 
love,  here,  living  at  your  feet,"  Constance  is  terrified  at  the 
thought  of  the  climax  in  affairs  which  this  disclosure  to  the 


THE   DRAMA  IN  RELATION  TO   TRUTH      367 

Queen  will  produce.  As  she  cries,  "See  the  Queen!"  Norbert 
notices  that  the  Queen  is  grasping  the  balcony.  He  addresses 
her:  "Madam  —  why  grasp  you  thus  the  balcony?  Have  I 
done  ill?  Have  I  not  spoken  truth?  How  could  I  other?" 
At  the  end  he  says,  "I  am  love  and  cannot  change:  love's  self 
is  at  your  feet!"  As  death  is  nearing,  he  reassures  Constance, 
"Sweet,  never  fear  what  she  can  do!  We  are  past  harm  now. 
.  .  .  Men  have  died  trying  to  find  this  place,  which  we  have 
found." 

Here  was  the  mutual  recognition  of  the  high  abstractions 
of  love  and  truth :  indestructible  ideals  which  even  death  could 
not  shatter. 

Many  quotations  might  be  made  from  the  dramas  of  Brown- 
ing in  illustration  of  the  necessity  to  be  through  and  through 
a  seeker  of  truth.  One  more  illustration  will  suffice.  The 
scene  is  after  the  murder  of  Henry  Mertoun.  Mildred  asks,  — 

"  You  let  him  try  to  give 
The  story  of  our  love  and  ignorance, 
And  the  brief  madness  and  the  long  despair  — 
You  let  him  plead  all  this,  because  your  code 
Of  honor  bids  you  hear  before  you  strike." 

And  Tresham  answers, — 

"No!  No! 

Had  I  but  heard  him  —  had  I  let  him  speak 
Half  the  truth  —  less  —  had  I  looked  long  on  him  — 
I  had  desisted!    Why,  as  he  lay  there, 
The  moon  on  his  flushed  cheek,  I  gathered  all 
The  story  ere  he  told  it:   I  saw  through 
The  troubled  surface  of  his  crime  and  yours 
A  depth  of  purity  immovable; 
Had  I  but  glanced,  where  all  seemed  turbidest 
Had  gleamed  some  inlet  to  the  calm  beneath; 
I  would  not  glance:   my  punishment 's  at  hand  — 
There,  Mildred,  is  the  truth!" 

There  are  probably  few  things  society  at  large  is  less  will- 
ing to  do  than  to  hear  and  accept  the  truth.  Public  opinion 
and  conventionality  more  often  than  not  serve  as  veneering 
to  right  and  direct  vision.  This  state  of  affairs  is  taken  up  by 


368  LITERARY  PAPERS 

Ibsen  in  "  An  Enemy  of  the  People,"  a  play  eminently  adapted 
for  study  and  representation  in  any  community.  From  the 
beginning  to  the  end,  the  action  of  the  play  is  a  crusade  in 
the  cause  of  truth. 

The  situation  is  drawn  with  an  unsparing  hand.  The  in- 
difference of  the  many  and  the  cowardliness  of  others  in  not 
openly  living  up  to  their  convictions  are  equally  delineated. 
Refreshingly  contrasting  is  the  picture  of  Dr.  Stockmann  and 
his  daughter  Petra,  who  would  willingly  sacrifice  all  self-in- 
terests to  stand  on  the  rock  of  truth  and  freedom.  Pathetic 
is  the  utterance  of  the  doctor,  when,  in  answer  to  his  wife's 
solicitude  for  the  materialities  of  life,  he  replies,  "That 's  my 
least  concern.  Now,  what  does  trouble  me  is,  that  I  don't  see 
any  man  with  enough  independence  and  nobility  of  character 
to  dare  to  take  up  my  work  after  me."  To  this  Petra  hope- 
fully suggests  that  others  will  come,  and  tells  her  father  he  is 
not  to  "  bother  about  that." 

In  "The  Doll's  House"  is  shown  that  woman  has  duties  to 
herself  as  well  as  to  others.  In  fact,  duty  to  self  is  first.  Only 
by  a  knowledge  of  self  and  by  developing  her  own  character 
may  she  hope  with  a  stronger  personality  to  live  for  some  per- 
manent good.  The  obligation  that  evolution  imposes  on  her 
to  think  out  for  herself  her  own  problems  is  a  text  Ibsen  often 
reads  from.  In  the  last  scene  between  Nora  and  Helmer,  where 
she  tells  him  she  has  other  duties  equally  sacred  with  those 
of  wife  and  mother,  the  duties  to  herself,  Helmer  reiterates, 
"Before  all  else  you  are  a  wife  and  a  mother."  She  replies, 
"That  I  no  longer  believe.  I  think  that  before  all  else  I  am 
a  human  being  just  as  much  as  you  are  —  or,  at  least,  I  will 
try  to  become  one.  I  know  that  most  people  agree  with  you, 
Torvald,  and  that  they  say  so  in  books,  but  henceforth  I  can't 
be  satisfied  with  what  most  people  say,  and  what  is  in  books. 
I  must  think  them  out  for  myself  and  try  to  get  clear  about 
them." 

Many  critics,  as  well  as  a  not  deep-thinking  public,  have 
cavilled  and  reviled  Ibsen's  plays,  and  this  because  he  dares 
to  raise  the  curtain  on  true  situations  not  uncommonly  met 
with  in  life.  Truly  these  situations  may  be  unpleasant  ones 


THE   DRAMA  IN  RELATION  TO   TRUTH     369 

for  some  persons  among  his  audience  to  face.  But  the  truth 
should  be  "greeted  with  a  cheer,"  no  matter  in  what  shape 
it  comes.  The  sooner  this  is  realized  and  the  remedy  applied, 
then  the  sooner  will  the  necessity  to  think  on  many  of  these 
unpleasant  situations  be  over. 

This  occasion  will  not  permit  of  a  fuller  treatment  of  the 
subject.  The  purport  of  this  brief  sketch  is  to  suggest  that 
the  drama  may  be  used  as  a  medium  to  elevate  women  and 
men,  and  to  educate  them  equally  to  a  knowledge  of  truth. 
From  truth  will  all  of  the  noblest  sentiments  radiate.  Action 
in  the  name  of  patriotism,  which  includes  love  of  self,  State, 
or  land,  exclusive  of  other  selves,  states,  or  lands,  partakes  of 
an  attribute  not  truly  noble.  The  patriot  who  would  be  truly 
noble  must  work  for  the  world. 

Ibsen,  in  a  paragraph  to  which  my  attention  has  been  called 
lately  by  a  friend,  remarks,  "The  State  is  the  curse  of  the  in- 
dividual. How  has  the  national  strength  of  Prussia  been  pur- 
chased? By  the  sinking  of  the  individual  in  a  political  and 
geographical  formula.  The  State  must  go.  That  will  be  a 
revolution  which  will  find  me  on  its  side.  Undermine  the  idea 
of  the  State,  set  up  in  its  place  spontaneous  action  and  the  idea 
that  spiritual  relationship  is  the  only  thing  that  makes  for 
unity,  and  you  will  start  the  elements  of  a  liberty  which  will 
be  something  worth  possessing." 

The  spiritual  relationship  is  the  thing. 


WOMAN   AND    FREEDOM   IN   WHITMAN1 

FROM  the  many  rich  utterances  of  Whitman  on  Woman  and 
Freedom,  the  reader  naturally  feels  himself  at  a  loss  when 
called  upon  to  repeat  selections  to  others.  At  best,  within  the 
limits  of  a  paper,  the  merest  sketch  or  outline  of  Whitman's 
conception  of  these  subjects  can  be  drawn. 

During  his  early  childhood  and  youth  Whitman  spent  many 
of  his  days  in  roaming  along  Paumanok's  shores,  where  his 
vision  and  soul  were  enthralled  by  the  vistas  of  sands  and  sea 
stretching  outward.  And,  if  the  sea  winds  blowing  along  the 
coast-line  and  the  shining  stars  or  the  sunlit-crested  waves 
had  not  as  yet  taught  him  fully  to  know  their  voices,  still  he 
had  begun  to  think  "a  thought  of  the  clef  of  the  universe  and 
of  the  future."  And  he  was  not  unmoved  by  the  tirelessly 
tossing  white  arms  when  from  the  sea  they  beckoned  him 
to  launch  his  craft  upon  "the  wild  unrest,"  the  limitless 
waters  of  "eternal  progress"  and  freedom. 

His  early  impression  of  woman  was  gathered  from  his  own 
family  circle,  whose  women-folk  were  strong  in  character  and 
purpose.  The  halo  of  motherhood  illumined  his  homely  abode 
And  the  fact,  too,  that  he  was  the  outcome  of  a  vigorous 
woman  ancestry  had  not  failed  to  leave  an  indelible  mark 
upon  the  poet. 

He  begins  his  songs  in  recognition  of  self  and  personality 
as  first,  "One's  self  I  sing,  a  simple  separate  person;"  then, 
placing  his  voice  where  the  resonance  is  most  clear  and  beau- 
tiful, he  sings,  removing  all  obstructions,  that  his  tones  may 
be  distinct  and  pure :  — 

1  Read  before  the  Walt  Whitman  Fellowship,  Boston,  November  19,  1896. 
Printed  in  Poet-Lore,  April-June,  1897;  also  in  pamphlet  form,  Boston  Poet- 
Lore  Company,  1897. 


WOMAN  AND  FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      371 

"The  Female  equally  with  the  Male  I  sing. 

Of  Life  immense  in  passion,  pulse,  and  power, 
Cheerful,  for  freest  action  form'd  under  the  laws  divine, 
The  Modern  Man  I  sing." 

Whitman's  passages  on  woman  convey  the  embodiment  of 
.her  under  practical  aspects;  also  ideally  as  the  typification 
of  some  of  his  noblest  forms,  as  in  the  "Santa  Spirita"  and 
"Victress  on  the  Peaks."  Comprehensively  he  addresses 
woman,  "You  womanhood  divine,  mistress  and  source  of  all, 
whence  life  and  love  and  aught  that  comes  from  life  and  love." 
The  mother,  wife,  sister,  daughter,  nurse,  comforter,  the  ad- 
ministrator in  sickness  and  health,  the  artiste,  the  working 
woman  or  the  woman  of  wealth  and  power,  in  all  these  capa- 
cities is  she  described.  Even  as  the  lowest  prostitute  she  is 
not  slurred  by;  in  her,  Whitman  sees  "the  divine  woman." 
He  tells  women,  "Be  not  ashamed  —  your  privilege  encloses 
the  rest,  and  is  the  exit  of  the  rest." 

Following  the  words,  "A  woman's  body  at  auction,"  are 
these  lines :  — 

"She  too  is  not  only  herself,  she  is  the  teeming  mother  of  mothers, 

She  is  the  bearer  of  them  that  shall  grow  and  be  mates  to  the  mothers. 

Have  you  ever  loved  the  body  of  a  woman?" 

Whitman's  universal  love  for  humanity  did  not  permit  him 
to  withhold  his  heed  and  sympathy  from  one  or  all  of  these 
woman-types. 

The  personal  touch  of  woman's  presence  is  very  dear  to 
him;  he  relates  that,  starting  betimes  for  a  day's  outing  at 
the  seashore,  fortified  by  a  good  breakfast,  cooked  by  hands 
he  loved,  his  "dear  sister  Lou's,"  how  much  better  it  made 
"the  victuals  taste  and  then  assimilate," — the  whole  day's 
comfort  afterwards  resting  upon  this  little  service. 

In  the  hospital  wards,  too,  the  magnetic  touch  of  hands,  the 
expressive  features  of  the  mother,  the  silent  soothing  of  her 
presence,  her  words,  her  knowledge  and  privileges,  arrived 
at  only  through  having  had  children,  are  the  precious  and 
final  qualifications.  It  is  a  natural  faculty  that  is  required,  it 


372  LITERARY  PAPERS 

is  not  merely  having  "a  genteel  young  woman  at  a  table  in  a 
ward." 

He  tells  of  "Girls,  mothers,  housekeepers  in  all  their  per- 
formances. The  group  of  laborers  seated  at  noon-time  with 
their  open  dinner  kettles,  and  their  wives  waiting;"  of  the 
prison  visitor  leading  her  children  by  each  hand,  who  brings, 
with  the  rustling  folds  of  her  silken  gown,  balm  to  heal  the 
convict's  woe.  Whether  as  the  woman  containing  all,  nothing 
lacking,  in  the  one  who  "waits  for  me,"  or  in  those  lines 
relating  to  a  city  where  all  is  forgotten  but  the  woman  who 
detained  him  for  love  of  him;  or  women  old  and  young;  or 
the  sleeping  mother,  — Whitman  studies  them  "each  and  all, 
long  and  long." 

Thus  in  labors  and  charity,  abroad  or  in  the  home,  Whitman 
sees  "male  and  female  everywhere."  But  Whitman  de- 
scribes woman,  too,  standing  alone;  she  it  is,  the  dusky  wo- 
man from  Ethiopia  who  salutes  the  flag,  who  recognizes  the 
banner,  the  colors  assuring  freedom.  The  one-time  slave, 
who,  knowing  the  lament  of  servitude,  welcomes  liberty  "and 
courtesies  to  the  regiments,"  though  through  men's  strife 
freedom  comes.  Whitman  also  does  not  forget  the  "young 
American  woman,"  one  of  a  large  family  of  daughters,  who 
has  gone  out  from  her  own  home  to  gain  her  own  support; 
who,  unstained,  preserved  her  own  independence,  and  by  her 
own  efforts  sustains  herself  and  helps  her  parents  and  sisters. 
Nor  is  he  silent  as  to  the  woman  who  "from  taste  and  neces- 
sity conjoined,  has  gone  into  practical  affairs,  carries  on  a 
mechanical  business,  partly  works  at  it  herself,  dashes  out 
more  and  more  into  real  hardy  life,  is  not  abash'd  by  the  coarse- 
ness of  the  contact  —  and  will  compare  any  day,  with  supe- 
rior carpenters,  farmers,  and  even  boatmen  and  drivers.  For 
all  that,  she  has  not  lost  the  charm  of  the  womanly  nature." 
Then  there  is  the  woman  "physiologically  sweet  and  sound, 
loving  work,  practical.  She  yet  knows  that  there  are  intervals, 
however  few,  devoted  to  recreation,  music,  leisure,  hospital- 
ity —  and  affords  such  intervals.  Whatever  she  does,  and 
wherever  she  is,  that  charm,  that  indescribable  perfume  of 
genuine  womanhood,  attends  her,  goes  with  her,  exhales  from 


WOMAN  AND   FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      373 

her,  which  belongs  of  right  to  all  the  sex,  and  is,  or  ought  to 
be,  the  invariable  atmosphere  and  common  aureola  of  old  as 
well  as  young." 

Then  there  is  the  Peacemaker,  "the  resplendent  person" 
his  dear  mother  once  described  to  him,  "the  neighborly,  sen- 
sible, and  discreet  woman,  an  invariable  and  welcomed  favor- 
ite." Whitman  admits  that  these  three  last  portraits  are  "  fright- 
fully out  of  line"  from  the  models,  "the  stock  feminine  char- 
acters of  the  current  novelist,  or  of  the  foreign  court  poems, 
.  .  .  which  fill  the  envying  dreams  of  so  many  poor  girls  and 
are  accepted  by  our  men,  too,  as  supreme  ideals  of  feminine 
excellence  to  be  sought  after."  Whitman  says  of  his  ideals, 
"But  I  present  mine  just  for  a  change." 

But  above  all,  Whitman  lingers  with  most  affectionate 
touch  at  motherhood:  "O  the  mother's  joys!  The  watching, 
the  endurance,  the  precious  love,  the  anguish,  the  patiently 
yielded  life,"  —  to  him  the  womanly  attribute,  at  once  the 
most  potent  and  divine,  to  him  the  consummation  of  the  early 
promise  in  the  eons  of  the  past  when  the  structures  of  organic 
life,  emerging  from  cosmic  forces,  bore  characters  of  femi- 
ninity. The  sweet  and  joyous  recollections  of  his  own  mother 
tinged  with  a  sacred  flame  all  relationships  of  mother  and 
child,  and  in  no  other  of  her  roles  is  woman  more  warmly 
described  by  him  than  as  mother.  "O  ripened  joy  of  wo- 
manhood! O  happiness  at  last!" 

The  mother  stands  as  symbol  and  seal  of  immortality. 

In  his  glowing  tribute  to  his  mother's  memory,  Whitman 
graves  a  monumental  line:  "To  her,  the  ideal  woman,  prac- 
tical, spiritual,  of  all  of  earth,  life,  love,  to  (him)  the  best." 

A  truly  beautiful  attribute  is  that  of  mother  and  child,  to 
Whitman,  and  when  extended  to  broader  horizons  on  the 
planes  beyond  the  bodily  motherhood,  the  thought  grows  to 
noble  proportions.  Woman  considered  as  the  mother  of  great 
intellectual  and  spiritual  progeny.  The  giver  out  of  the  fluid 
of  true  life.  A  mother  for  humanity  verily;  in  this  sense  the 
human  motherhood  of  Whitman  is  impressive,  she  exists  for 
the  race  at  large,  she  is  the  impersonification  of  the  demo- 
cratic idea,  a  thought  of  fullest  possibility.  The  human  mother 


374  LITERARY  PAPERS 

receptive  of  all  noblest  traits,  she,  freed  from  systems  and  rules, 
gives  forth  offspring  of  body  and  thought,  noble  as  she  is, 
permeated  as  she  is  through  and  through  with  noblest  aspira- 
tions. She  is  alive  to  the  requirements  of  others  for  sympathy 
and  comprehension.  What  she  absorbs  from  the  cosmos,  she 
gives  out  in  generous  plentifulness.  Whitman  enumerates 
the  women  who  are  the  theme  of  writers  from  the  earliest 
time  to  the  present,  then  he  says,  "Yet  woman  portrayed  or 
outlined  at  her  best  or  as  perfect  human  mother  does  not 
hitherto,  it  seems  to  me,  fully  appear  in  literature." 

But  there  is  one  aspect  of  motherhood  which  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  touched  on  by  Whitman  perceptibly,  that  is,  the 
mother  who  might  be  named  the  impersonal  mother,  she 
who,  whether  for  her  own  offspring  or  another's,  holds  out 
to  the  tender  being  her  care  and  love  because  she  is  actuated 
by  the  highest  motives  of  kindliness  based  upon  universal 
brotherhood.  These  motives  are  not  akin  to  the  motives  due 
to  the  mother's  instinct.  Their  roots  are  centred  in  currents 
deeper  by  far,  if  less  turbulent,  than  the  mother's  instinct; 
in  steady  flowing  currents  destined  to  speed  towards  seas  of 
promise.  This  impersonal  motherhood  obtains  irrespective 
of  any  special  claims  of  ownership  because  the  child  is  of  one's 
own  flesh  and  blood.  This  child  has,  as  have  all  other  chil- 
dren, the  claims  to  its  own  being,  its  own  rights;  it  stands 
independent,  and  towards  such  the  impersonal  mother  stands 
independent.  Ibsen  has  brought  out  this  point  in  the  closing 
scenes  of  his  drama,  "  Little  Eyolf."  The  husband  and  wife 
meet  on  a  plane  of  sympathy  and  action,  to  bring  joy  and  hap- 
piness to  the  hearts  of  the  innumerable  homeless  children 
of  the  poor,  who  are  now  to  occupy  with  them  their  home. 
The  wife,  in  contrast  to  the  mother's  exclusive  love,  of  the 
early  scenes  of  the  play,  opens  her  heart  to  these  other  chil- 
dren of  the  poor.  They  are  to  use  the  belongings  of  little  Eyolf, 
their  own  child,  who  was  enticed  so  mysteriously  into  a  watery 
grave.  It  needed  the  shock  of  this  child's  death  to  develop  the 
characters  of  Alfred  and  Rita  Allmers  to  this  impersonal 
parental  feeling. 

Ibsen  has  also  made  an  attack  on  the  modern  family,  cen- 


WOMAN  AND   FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      375 

tring  around  the  mother's  instinctive  love,  in  the  "Doll's 
House,"  where,  in  the  development  of  the  plot,  and  for  mo- 
tives displayed,  Nora  leaves  her  children. 

Turning  our  thoughts  towards  Jerusalem  and  the  events  of 
that  memorable  day  on  Mount  Calvary,  at  the  moment  when 
Jesus  from  the  cross  saw  his  mother  and  the  disciple  whom 
he  loved  standing  by,  and  whom  he  addressed  in  these  words : 
"Woman,  behold  thy  son!"  and  to  the  disciple,  "Behold  thy 
mother!"  we  bring  to  ourselves  from  this  scene  an  imprint 
beyond  the  mere  interpretation  of  the  words,  which  are  that 
Mary  and  John  should  cling  to  each  other  in  mutual  sustain- 
ment  and  comfort."  Much  more  is  meant  by  these  words  of 
Jesus.  They  stand  as  the  utterance  of  one  who,  out  of  the 
depth  of  agony  and  love  for  humanity,  foresaw  in  spiritual 
relationship  the  horizon  of  a  richer  and  more  glowing  dawn. 

If  Whitman  tacitly  accords  to  woman,  in  the  vigorous  out- 
lines of  many  of  his  poems,  the  rights  to  freedom,  self- eman- 
cipation, and  the  individual  life,  he  does  so  more  generally 
by  including  her  under  the  impersonal  cognomen  of  man. 
In  the  verses  where  her  sex  is  especially  spoken  of,  the  poet 
seems  to  have  restricted  her  spheres,  with  few  exceptions 
(among  these  "Mediums"  maybe  noted),  to  those  capacities 
serving  the  ends  of  practical  life. 

Whitman  pauses  less  upon  his  touches  of  woman  leading 
an  individual  life  apart  from  sexuality,  maternity,  domestic- 
ity, and  toil.  All  of  these  activities  being  by  no  means  meant 
by  me  to  be  excluded,  one  and  all,  from  her  individual  life; 
they  may  form  a  part  of  it,  but  not  one  and  all  are  consequently 
essential  to  woman's  individual  development.  The  exercise 
of  the  woman's  special  functions  just  enumerated  are,  indeed, 
accidental  and  quite  separate  from  her  real  life,  just  as  much 
as  the  claims  of  paternity  and  laboring  for  the  support  of  a  family 
are  apart  from  man's.  The  real  life  of  man  or  woman  may 
be  conceived  of  as  being  the  mental  and  emotional  life,  which 
may  or  may  not  inclose  for  woman  aspects  of  maternity,  do- 
mesticity, and  toil.  In  other  words,  the  individual  life  is  the 
life  of  self,  denuded  of  all  externalities. 

Whitman  is  not  insensible  to  woman's  needs,  nor  to  her 


376  LITERARY  PAPERS 

possibilities  as  a  future  power  in  the  greater  development  of  the 
race,  apart  from  her  maternal  qualities;  everywhere  is  claimed 
for  her  equality  and  equal  share  in  the  freedom  she  is  to  be  the 
co-worker  with  man  to  gain.  In  comparatively  few  parts  of 
the  poet's  works  are  the  concrete  affairs  of  life  in  the  lines  just 
mentioned  discussed;  but  when  Whitman  is  moved  to  give 
expression  to  his  aspiring  opinion,  he  does  so  forcibly,  with 
the  least  weight  on  the  material  properties,  which  he  indeed 
considers  insignificant  before  the  higher  gains  of  character 
and  personality. 
He  tells  us  that  - 

"The  place  where  a  great  city  stands  is  not  the  place  of  stretch'd  wharves, 
docks,  manufactures,  deposits  of  produce  merely, 

Nor  the  place  of  the  tallest  and  costliest  buildings  or  shops  selling  goods 
from  the  rest  of  the  earth, 

Nor  the  place  of  the  best  libraries,  and  schools,  nor  the  place  where  money 
is  plentiest;" 

but  where  "  common  words  and  deeds  "  exist  as  monuments 
to  heroes,  there  thrift  and  prudence  are  in  their  places,  - 

"  Where  the  men  and  women  think  lightly  of  the  laws, 

Where  the  slave  and  the  master  of  slaves  ceases, 

Where  the  populace  rise  at  once  against  the  never-ending  audacity  of 

elected  persons, 
Where  outside  authority  enters  always  after  the  precedence  of  inside 

authority, 
Where  the  citizen  is  always  the  head  and  ideal,  and  President,  Mayor, 

Governor,  and  what  not,  are  agents  for  pay, 
Where  children  are  taught  to  be  laws  to  themselves,  and  to  depend  on 

themselves, 

Where  equanimity  is  illustrated  in  affairs, 
Where  speculations  on  the  soul  are  encouraged, 
Where  women  walk  in  public  processions  in  the  streets  the  same  as  the 

men, 
Where  they  enter  the  public  assembly  and  take  places  the  same  as  the 

men." 

And  as  a  blow  against  making   gods  of  all  the  relative 
acquisitions  on  the  material  plane,  he  adds,  "and  nothing 


WOMAN  AND  FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      377 

endures  but  personal  qualities."  And  does  he  not  say,  too,  "A 
great  city  is  that  which  has  the  greatest  men  and  women?" 
If  it  be  a  "few  ragged  huts  it  is  still  the  greatest  city  in  the 
whole  world."  Whitman,  in  accord  with  the  sages  of  past 
times,  brings  his  message  into  relation  with  our  day  and  ex- 
istence; and  though  we  are  divested  and  stripped  in  our  strife, 
and  go  out  naked  and  alone  into  the  world,  we  are  yet  the 
possessor  of  all  riches  and  all  gain  in  the  possession  of  the 
freedom  of  soul  which  is  Whitman's  everlasting  theme. 

It  cannot  be  disputed  that  Whitman  allows  for  women  all 
constitutional  rights  in  state  and  country;  and  if  stress  on 
my  part  is  laid  on  this  point,  it  is  out  of  deference  to  those 
who  believe  woman's  complete  emancipation  will  come  through 
suffrage. 

Whitman  more  than  once  refers  to  the  subject:  but,  speak- 
ing on  general  suffrage,  elections,  etc.,  he  expresses  himself 
as  doubtful  whether  these  will  ever  secure  officially  the  best 
results.  "  Officers,  candidacy  for  them,  caucusing  money,  the 
favoritism,  the  interest  of  rings,  the  superior  manipulation 
of  the  ins  over  the  outs,"  are  indeed  at  best  the  mere  busi- 
ness agencies  of  the  people,  are  useful  as  "formulating  neither 
the  best  and  highest,  but  the  average  of  the  public  judgment 
(or  sometimes  want  of  judgment)."  But  he  says,  "as  to  the 
general  suffrage,  after  all,  since  we  have  gone  so  far,  the  more 
general  it  is  the  better.  I  favor  the  widest  opening  of  the 
doors.  Let  the  ventilation  and  area  be  wide  enough,  and  all 
is  safe." 

In  Whitman's  plea  for  equality,  and  in  all  due  considera- 
tion of  material  rights,  which  to  him  are  only  substrata  to  in- 
crease man's  and  woman's  height  towards  spirituality,  and 
in  his  greetings  to  worldly  prosperity  and  material  comforts 
and  progress,  he  declares  that  "the  soul  of  man  will  not  with 
such  only  —  nay,  not  with  such  at  all  —  be  finally  satisfied; 
but  needs  what  (standing  on  these  and  on  all  things,  as  the 
feet  stand  on  the  ground)  is  address' d  to  the  loftiest,  to  itself 
alone." 

The  basis  of  Whitman's  plea  for  equality  is  his  belief  in 
immortality.  He  leaves  the  earth  and  its  belongings  below 


378  LITERARY  PAPERS 

him.    Immortality  is  the  flux  which  resolves  all  inequalities 
into  equalities. 

"Why,  what  have  you  thought  of  yourself? 

Is  it  you,  then,  that  thought  yourself  less  ? 

Is  it  you  that  thought  the  President  greater  than  you? 

Or  the  rich  better  off  than  you?  or  the  educated  wiser  than  you? 

Because  you  are  greasy  or  pimpled,  or  were  once  drunk,  or  a  thief, 

Or  that  you  are  diseas'd,  or  rheumatic,  or  a  prostitute, 

Or  from  frivolity  or  impotence,  or  that  you  are  no  scholar  and  never  saw 

your  name  in  print, 
Do  you  give  in  that  you  are  any  less  immortal?" 

This  unity  with  that  undying  principle  unites  us  all  in 
this  life  and  beyond,  wherein  we  are  equals.  Whitman  asks : 
"What  is  it,  then,  between  us?  What  is  the  count  of  the 
scores  or  hundreds  of  years  between  us  ?  Whatever  it  is,  it 
avails  not,  —  distance  avails  not,  and  place  avails  not." 

In  woman's  equality  as  a  political  or  economic  being,  Whit- 
man seems  less  concerned;  his  eye  is  directed  towards  the 
opening  future;  woman's  equality  with  man's  lies  in  her 
spiritual  aspirations,  aim,  and  purpose.  But  he  believes  what- 
ever is  done  in  life  counts  towards  immortality. 

"I  believe  of  all  those  men  and  women  that  filPd  the  un-named  lands, 
every  one  exists  this  hour  here  or  elsewhere,  invisible  to  us. 

In  exact  proportion  to  what  he  or  she  grew  from  in  life,  and  out  of  what 
he  or  she  did,  felt,  became,  loved,  sinned,  in  life." 

But  Whitman  tells  of  mutterings  —  of  which  he  says,  "We 
will  not  now  stop  to  heed  them  here,  but  they  must  be  heeded" 
—  of  something  more  revolutionary.  "The  day  is  coming 
when  the  deep  questions  of  woman's  entrance  amid  the  arenas 
of  practical  life,  politics,  the  suffrage,  etc.,  will  not  only  be 
argued  all  round  us,  but  may  be  put  to  decision  and  real  ex- 
periment." Then,  as  if  heeding  the  insufficiency  of  our  pre- 
sent state  of  affairs  and  conditions,  he  projects  the  "types  of 
highest  personality  .  .  .  entirely  recast  .  .  .  from  what  the 
oriental,  feudal,  ecclesiastical  worlds  bequeath  us.  Of  course, 
the  old,  undying  elements  remain.  The  task  is,  to  successfully 


WOMAN  AND   FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      379 

adjust  them  to  new  combinations,  our  own  days."  He  de- 
scribes the  community  he  conceives  of,  a  possibility  for  to- 
day, where  "perfect  personalities  without  noise  meet;"  where 
"best  men  and  women  of  ordinary  worldly  status  have  by 
luck  been  drawn  together,  with  nothing  extra  of  genius  or 
wealth,  but  virtuous,  chaste,  industrious,  cheerful,  resolute, 
friendly,  and  devout."  He  conceives  "such  a  community  organ- 
ized in  running  order,  powers  judiciously  delegated,  farming, 
building,  trade,  courts,  mails,  schools,  elections  all  attended 
to,  and  then  the  rest  of  life,  the  main  thing  freely  branching 
and  blossoming  in  each  individual;"  and  he  sees  there  in 
"every  young  and  old  man  —  and  in  every  woman  —  a  true 
personality  developed,  exercised  proportionally  in  body  and 
mind  and  spirit;"  and  this  case  he  imagines  "in  buoyant 
accordance  with  the  municipal  and  general  requirements  of 
our  times." 

It  is  not  possible  to  pass  over  in  silence  the  practical  side 
of  woman's  life  on  matters  of  equality,  which  our  poet  asks 
for  her,  though,  in  view  of  present-day  systems,  Whitman  is 
silent  in  directing  her  how  she  is  to  obtain  this  equality.  He 
says,  "I  seek  less  to  state  or  display  any  scheme  or  thought, 
and  more  to  bring  you,  reader,  into  the  atmosphere  of  the 
theme  or  thought,  there  to  pursue  your  own  flight." 

To  discuss  the  rhythmic  rise  and  fall  in  woman's  develop- 
ment through  the  times  is  beyond  these  bounds,  nor  can  these 
limits  include  a  review  of  woman's  history  from  any  point  of 
view.  It  conceded,  as  a  wise  biologist  has  said,  that  man  is 
the  result  of  what  woman  has  made  him;  likewise  is  it  true 
that  man  has  not  been  entirely  inactive  in  woman's  construc- 
tion. We  must  take  woman,  in  any  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject, as  we  find  her  to-day,  in  the  light  of  a  modern  civiliza- 
tion, as  the  resultant  of  a  long  series  of  conditions,  as  more 
or  less  the  creature  of  her  environment,  —  physically,  men- 
tally, and  spiritually. 

I  have  to  omit,  for  want  of  space,  the  discussion  in  any  de- 
tail of  woman's  inequalities,  and  I  will  merely  mention  those 
upon  which  Whitman  dwells.  However,  it  would  scarcely  be 
fair  to  my  subject  to  leave  out  mentioning  one  other  inequal- 


380  LITERARY  PAPERS 

ity;  this  is  the  inequality  of  duties,  which  is  sorely  felt  by  many 
women.  The  loading  of  all  domestic  cares  upon  the  woman, 
to  the  exclusion  of  other  duties  to  herself.  The  arbitrarily 
established  customs  of  society  that  men  should  labor  for  the 
support  of  families  and  women  should  devote  themselves  to 
the  domestic  work  of  the  households,  is  an  unequal  position 
from  the  point  of  view  that  either  sex  is  lowered  from  its  sphere 
if  assuming  the  scope  of  the  other.  A  writer  has  said  that  this 
fact  of  forcing  household  duties  upon  woman  as  a  specialty 
"is  alone  a  proof  of  the  inferiority  which  society  ascribes  to 
woman,  since  it  assigns  her  duties  which  it  confesses  are  be- 
neath the  dignity  of  male  labor.'' 

One  other  inequality  is  the  inequality  in  the  making  of  the 
laws.  Men  make  the  laws,  and,  by  voting,  select  the  rulers 
and  representatives  of  women  as  well  as  themselves.  If  hap- 
piness depends  upon  enlarged  sources  of  activity,  then  truth 
rests  in  these  words :  "  It  is  quite  certain  that  in  all  distribu- 
tion of  happiness,  the  stronger  sex  has  seized  the  lion's  share." 

The  words  just  quoted  are  worth  remembering  when  studied 
in  company  with  the  utterances  of  one  party  among  writers, 
who  maintain  that  masculine  force  has  had  no  share  in  wo- 
man's subjection,  and  who  believe  that  woman  alone  has  put 
herself  into  bondage. 

Perhaps  nowhere  is  woman's  inequality  more  marked  than 
in  her  limited  opportunities  for  experiences  in  the  life  sur- 
rounding her.  Whitman  has  given  expression  to  woman's 
longings  for  wider  experience  when  he  presents,  in  the  "  Song 
of  the  Broad  Axe,"  the  shape  of  her  who  is  to  know  all,  pass 
through  all,  untouched  and  spotless,  a  law  to  herself.  It  may 
be  said  in  general  terms  that,  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave, 
woman  is  debarred  by  social  restrictions  from  taking  her  share 
either  as  observer  or  actor  in  the  activities  of  the  community 
in  which  she  resides.  The  freedom  of  men  to  go  and  come 
as  they  please,  and  liberty  in  all  their  relations  with  their  fellow 
beings,  is  a  factor,  and  a  large  one,  in  man's  present  vantage 
ground.  When  woman  attempts  to  step  aside  from  her  nar- 
rowing spheres,  she  exposes  herself  not  only  to  other  incon- 
veniences, but  also  to  the  anomalous  criticisms  of  a  binary 


WOMAN  AND   FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN     381 

system  of  moral  standards  which  is  at  work  in  the  world  in 
judgment  on  man  and  woman. 

The  suffrage  already  referred  to  is  a  cause  Whitman  cham- 
pions for  the  attainment  of  woman's  rights  in  civil  and  politi- 
cal affairs.1 

The  persistent  withholding  of  these  rights  is  one  of  the  cry- 
ing disgraces  of  the  day.  If  the  political  system  of  represen- 
tation by  suffrage  is  the  chosen  form  of  a  country's  govern- 
ment, then  withholding  these  rights  from  even  one  woman, 
if  she  wants  them,  clearly  shows  that  she  is  not  regarded  worthy 
of  citizenship,  and  "  woman's  position  has  reached  the  lowest 
and  most  dependent  state." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  here  into  a  discussion  of  the  rights 
and  wrongs  of  universal  suffrage,  and  the  majority  rule,  or 
of  those  systems  with  divergent  paths  leading  on  one  side  to 
Authority,  and  on  the  other  side  to  Freedom.  It  is  enough  to 
recall  to  memory  those  ancient  systems  where  women  at  cer- 
tain periods  rose  to  places  of  eminence  before  the  law,  and 
then  to  ask:  If  universal  suffrage  is  admitted  to  be  such  a 
dangerous  weapon  as  the  opposers  to  woman  suffrage  contend 
it  is,  why  do  not  those  who  oppose  woman's  claims  on  the 
ground  that  her  ignorant  vote  will  help  to  bring  about  gen- 
eral destruction,  wage  war  against  the  entire  system  of  suf- 
frage? If  it  contains  such  germs  of  terror,  why  bring  these 
arguments  to  eliminate  woman  simply  because  she  is  a  wo- 
man, when  the  voting  list  is  being  yearly  increased  by  foreign, 
ignorant  voters,  controlled  by  bosses  and  demagogues  ?  Point 
out  to  me  where  freedom  is  to  be  found  in  this  state  of  af- 
fairs. 

I  cannot  pass  over  just  here  the  words  of  John  Stuart  Mill, 

-words  in  harmony  with  Whitman's  words,  which  I  shall 

repeat  later.    Mill,  in  reference  to  the  United  States,  calls 

1  To  the  movement  for  the  eligibility  and  entrance  of  women  amid  new 
spheres  of  business,  politics,  and  the  suffrage,  the  current  prurient,  conventional 
treatment  of  sex  is  the  main  formidable  obstacle.  The  rising  tide  of  'Woman's 
rights,'  swelling,  and  every  year  advancing  farther  and  farther,  recoils  from 
it  with  dismay.  There  will,  in  my  opinion,  be  no  general  progress  in  such  eligi- 
bility till  a  sensible,  philosophic,  democratic  method  is  substituted.  —  Whit- 
man's Prose,  p.  304. 


382  LITERARY  PAPERS 

attention  to  our  "democratic  institutions"  resting  avowedly 
on  the  "inherent  right  of  every  one  to  have  a  voice  in  the  gov- 
ernment." He  points  to  the  statement  with  which  our  De- 
claration of  Independence  commences,  "that  all  men  are 
created  equal;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness ;  that  to  secure  these  rights,  gov- 
ernments are  instituted  among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed."  And  he  does  not  imagine 
that  any  "American  democrat  will  evade  the  force  of  these 
expressions  by  the  dishonest  or  ignorant  subterfuge  that  men, 
in  the  memorable  document,  does  not  stand  for  human  beings, 
but  for  one  sex  only  —  and  that  'the  governed'  whose  con- 
sent is  affirmed  to  be  the  only  source  of  just  power  is  meant 
for  that  half  of  mankind  only,  who  in  relation  to  the  others, 
have  hitherto  assumed  the  character  of  governors." 

It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  the  arguments  for  and  against 
woman's  intellectual  equality  here.  They  have  been  discussed 
during  past  years  threadbare.  I  will  quote  only  a  few  words 
more  from  Mill  on  this  theme;  he  has  been  speaking  of  the 
deleterious  effects  of  forcing  women  into  careers  which  are 
devoted  to  trivial  details,  to  the  exclusion  of  combining  with 
them  other  activities  or  professions ;  he  adds :  — 

"Not  to  be  misunderstood,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should 
distinctly  disclaim  the  belief  that  women  are  even  now  in- 
ferior in  intellect  to  men.  There  are  women  who  are  the 
equals  in  intellect  of  any  men  who  ever  lived;  and,  compar- 
ing ordinary  women  with  ordinary  men,  the  varied  though 
petty  details  which  compose  the  occupation  of  women  call 
forth  probably  as  much  of  mental  ability  as  the  uniform  rou- 
tine of  the  pursuits  which  are  the  habitual  occupations  of  a 
large  majority  of  men." 

Whitman's  words,  to  which  I  referred  in  this  connection,  are 
these  (he  is  speaking  of  democracy  and  its  ideals  of  women) :  - 

"The  idea  of  the  women  of  America  (extricated  from  this 
daze,  this  fossil  and  unhealthy  air  which  hangs  about  the  word 
lady),  develop'd,  raised  to  become  the  robust  equals,  workers 
and  it  may  be  even  practical  and  political  deciders  with  the 


WOMAN  AND  FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      383 

men  —  greater  than  man,  we  may  admit,  through  their  divine 
maternity,  always  their  towering  emblematical  attribute  — 
but  great,  at  any  rate,  as  man,  in  all  departments;  or  rather 
capable  of  being  so,  as  soon  as  they  realize  it,  and  can  bring 
themselves  to  give  up  toys  and  fiction,  and  launch  forth,  as 
men  do,  amid  real,  independent  stormy  life." 

The  physical  inequality  of  woman  is  one  that  Whitman 
would  wipe  out.  His  lines  repeat  themselves  again  and  again, 
urging  women  on  to  robustness.  He  deprecates  dyspeptic 
womanly  amours.  He  calls  for  the  "athletic  American  ma- 
tron speaking  in  public  to  crowds  of  listeners."  In  jubilant 
song  he  announces  the  "  horsewoman's  joys."  He  encourages 
woman  to  fill  her  being  with  the  great  world  ideas,  "  events 
and  revolutions,"  sweeping  in  waves  of  immense  passion 
across  the  earth. 

Something  of  this  spirit  has  filtered  its  way  to-day  into 
France.  Woman's  physical  inequality  is  to  be  met  by  espe- 
cial attention  to  the  culture  of  her  physique,  and  as  a  part  of 
the  solution  of  the  sex  problem,  as  well  as  the  problem  of 
society,  the  indispensableness  of  woman  standing  with  man  as 
physical  peer  is  recognized. 

Whitman  urges  both  women  and  men  to  action;  he  tells 
them:  "As  for  you,  I  advise  you  to  enter  more  strongly  into 
politics  —  always  inform  yourself;  always  do  the  best  you 
can;  always  vote.  Disengage  yourself  from  parties."  Whit- 
man exults  in  independence.  "What  is  independence?  Free- 
dom from  all  laws  or  bonds  except  those  of  one's  own  being, 
controll'd  by  the  universal  ones.  To  lands,  to  man,  to  woman, 
what  is  there  at  last  to  each  but  the  inherent  soul,  nativity, 
idiosyncrasy,  highest  poised,  soaring  its  own  flight,  following 
out  itself?" 

Whitman  is  not  blind  to  the  fact  that  these  States  are  not 
true  to  what  he  believes  the  real  spirit  of  their  constitution  to 
be,  "for  all  this  hectic  glow  and  these  melodramatic  scream- 
ings."  He  sounds  the  alarm,  and  cautions  political  and  busi- 
ness readers  "against  the  prevailing  delusion  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  political  institutions  and  plentiful  intellectual 
smartness,  with  general  good  order,  physical  plenty,  indus- 


384  LITERARY  PAPERS 

try,  etc.  (desirable  and  precious  advantages  as  they  all  are), 
do  of  themselves  determine  and  yield  to  our  experiment  of 
democracy  the  fruitage  of  success.  Society  in  these  States  is 
canker' d,  crude,  superstitious,  and  rotten.  Political,  or  law- 
made  society  is,  and  private,  or  voluntary  society  is  also.  .  .  . 
The  spectacle  is  appalling.  We  live  in  an  atmosphere  of 
hypocrisy  throughout.  The  men  believe  not  in  the  women, 
nor  the  women  in  the  men.  The  aim  of  all  the  litterateurs  is 
to  find  something  to  make  fun  of.  A  lot  of  churches,  sects, 
etc.,  the  most  dismal  phantoms  I  know,  usurp  the  name  of  re- 
ligions." 

He  tells  of  the  business  depravity  of  our  country:  that  it  "is 
not  less  than  has  been  supposed,  but  infinitely  greater."  He 
speaks  of  all  official  services  and  departments  as  "tainted" 
and  saturated  in  "corruption"  and  "falsehood."  These  are 
the  sins  that  men  have  to  answer  for.  Woman's  share  of  all 
this  purification  is  her  part  in  "fashionable  life,  flippancy, 
tepid  amours,  weak  infidelism,  small  aims  or  no  aims  at  all." 
These  things  are  all  untruth,  soul-unsatisfying.  All  these  ex- 
crescences are  to  be  cut  away,  and  in  their  stead  arise  "  char- 
ity and  personal  force  —  the  only  investments  worth  any- 
thing." 

Whitman  would  favor  the  financial  independence  of  wo- 
man as  part  of  his  scheme.  He  says,  "my  theory  includes 
riches  and  the  getting  of  riches,"  and  he  maintains  that,  after 
the  rights  of  property  have  been  listened  to  and  acquiesced 
in,  the  liberalism  of  these  United  States  asks  "for  men  and 
women  well  off,  owners  of  houses  and  acres,  and  with  cash 
in  the  bank."  Thus  he  would  extend  wealth  to  all,  giving  to 
men  and  women  money,  products,  and  power  as  a  base  upon 
which  to  raise  the  edifice  of  personal  liberty.  He  does  not  sug- 
gest how  these  riches  are  individually  to  accrue,  although  he 
condemns  modern  business  methods  and  despises  materiality 
as  the  aim  of  all  effort;  still  he  is  not  in  sympathy  with  the 
idea  that  "property  is  theft,"  for  in  other  passages  than  those 
just  quoted  he  perceives  "clearly  that  the  extreme  business 
energy,  and  this  almost  maniacal  appetite  for  wealth  preva- 
lent in  the  United  States,  are  parts  of  amelioration  and  pro- 


WOMAN  AND  FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      385 

gress  indispensably  needed  to  prepare  the  very  results"  he 
demands. 

Whitman's  idea  is  one  of  endless  material  and  spiritual 
progress.  We  are  constantly  being  told  by  students  of  social 
matters  that  we  are  developing,  and  slowly  approaching  a 
better  state  of  human  affairs.  In  a  few  of  our  States  some  of 
the  inequalities  of  woman  which  we  have  been  reciting  are 
met  by  reform  measures.  Woman  has  been  granted  suffrage 
in  these  exceptional  States;  in  one  or  more  States  the  married 
woman  stands  as  owner  of  herself.  Acceptable  as  all  reforms 
are,  they  are  not  enough  singly,  or  isolated  here  and  there 
throughout  the  land.  The  field  of  the  world  at  large  is  too 
wide  to  be  protected  by  one  piece  of  reform  artillery.  And 
those  of  us  who  are  happy  in  living  in  the  more  enlightened 
community  of  our  own  ideas,  or  actually  in  these  exceptional 
spots  on  the  earth's  surface  alluded  to  a  few  moments  ago, 
must  not  disregard  the  fact,  in  thinking  of  woman  the  world 
over,  that  to-day  she  stands  far  below  the  knoll  where  Whit- 
man would  carry  her. 

Whitman  speaks  of  this  land  as  "the  great  women's  land, 
the  feminine,  the  experienced  sisters  and  the  inexperienced 
sisters."  He  salutes  woman  and  invites  her  to  a  place  of  equal- 
ity with  man,  and  he  bids  one  and  the  other  to  be  free.  The 
situation  takes  on  an  awe-inspiring  aspect  as  well  as  a  grue- 
some one  when  we  consider  the  conventional  idols  across  the 
pathway  which  must  be  cast  aside  in  this  search  for  equality 
and  freedom. 

By  some  writers  it  has  been  stated  that  from  evolution  to 
revolution  is  only  a  hurried  step  in  the  process  of  human  af- 
fairs. Indeed,  revolution  has  been  named  a  hurried  evolution. 
In  our  present  consideration,  revolution  more  particularly 
applies  to  bringing  the  woman  question  to  an  issue.  But 
woman's  deliverance  may  be  more  intimately  blended  with 
a  social  reconstructive  scheme  than  has  seemed  evident  to 
woman's  warmest  adherents. 

Whether  this  general  revolution  is  to  be  accomplished  by 
violent  or  pacific  means,  rests  upon  the  vigor  of  individual  con- 
victions. If  either  man  or  woman  is  convinced  that  the  exist- 


386  LITERARY  PAPERS 

ing  state  of  human  affairs  is  so  utterly  wrong  as  to  be  righted 
only  by  destroying  it  and  starting  anew,  then  comes  the  per- 
sonal justification  of  a  revolutionist. 

Certain  passages  in  Whitman's  prose  writings  point  to  his 
expressions  of  revolution  being  meant  in  a  symbolic  sense. 
Possibly  his  poetic  expressions  of  revolt  may  be  likewise 
meant. 

"Pale,  silent,  stern,  what  could  I  say  to  that  long-accrued  retribution? 

Could  I  wish  humanity  different? 

Could  I  wish  the  people  made  of  wood  and  stone  ? 

Or  that  there  be  no  justice  in  destiny  or  time  ? 

O  Liberty!   O  mate  for  me! 

Here  too  the  blaze,  the  grape-shot  and  the  axe,  in  reserve,  to  fetch  them 

out  in  case  of  need, 

Here  too,  though  long  represt,  can  never  be  destroy 'd, 
Here  too  could  rise  at  last  murdering  and  ecstatic, 
Here  too  demanding  full  arrears  of  vengeance." 

"Courage  yet  my  brother  or  my  sister ! 

Keep  on  —  Liberty  is  to  be  subserv'd  whatever  occurs; 

(Not  songs  of  loyalty  alone  are  these, 

But  songs  of  insurrection  also, 

For  I  am  the  sworn  poet  of  every  dauntless  rebel  the  world  over, 

And  he  going  with  me  leaves  peace  and  routine  behind  him, 

And  stakes  his  life  to  be  lost  at  any  moment)." 

Again  Whitman  tells  us: — 

"What  we  believe  in  waits  latent  forever  through  all  the  continents, 
Invites  no  one,  promises  nothing,  sits  in  calmness  and  light,  is  positive 

and  composed,  knows  no  discouragement, 
Waiting  patiently,  waiting  its  time." 

And  Whitman  extends  his  sympathy  to  those  who,  abiding 
the  truths  that  rest  in  all  things,  "  neither  hasten  their  own 
delivery  nor  resist  it."  Whitman  stands  for  each  in  warm 
sympathy.  He  looks  to  the  time  when  the  "People  themselves 
are  lifted,  illumined,  bathed  in  peace  —  elate,  secure  in  peace," 


WOMAN  AND   FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      387 

and  he  would  do  "away  with  themes  of  war!  away  with  war 
itself!  .  .  .  And  in  its  stead  speed  industry's  campaigns," 
and  in  the  work  to  be  done,  "For  every  man  to  see  to  it  that 
he  really  do  something,  for  every  woman  too." 

A  writer  has  said,  if  ever  any  class  on  earth  has  had  cause 
to  revolt,  it  is  woman,  be  the  causes  of  her  limitations  from 
many  factors,  or  what  you  please.  In  simplest  terms,  it  may 
be  asked,  what  is  to  be  gained  by  this  revolution  ?  The  answer 
is  Freedom.  Freedom  is  the  end  which  revolution  and  revolt 
through  truth  have  in  view.  It  is  a  liberation  from  all  the 
chains  which  are  holding  back  the  human  being  from  greater 
expansions  of  mind  and  soul.  By  Freedom  is  meant  a  state 
wherein  all  the  shackles  from  preconceived  ideas  of  the  rights 
and  wrongs  of  a  question,  are  cast  aside;  when  the  being 
stands  unhampered  to  view  each  question  on  its  own  merits, 
to  let  each  concept  to  which  the  human  mind  is  open  work 
out  through  a  sequence  to  its  logical  conclusion;  where  the 
individual's  action  need  not  necessarily  be  one  with  the  full 
possibilities  of  the  conceptional  outgrowth,  but  where  the  in- 
dividual may  partake  of  equal  actional  with  theoretical  liberty 
if  so  he  or  she  desires.  In  Freedom  each  being  must  stand 
alone,  and  the  conduct  of  another  cannot  be  prescribed  by 
you  or  by  me. 

Freedom  is  also  a  state  wherein  we  are  surely  not  free  to 
give  ourselves  up  to  unbridled  passions,  license,  and  vices. 
For  once  we  have  resigned  our  own  leadership  into  their  law- 
less hands,  we  can  call  ourselves  free  no  longer;  but  we  be- 
come enslaved  men  and  women.  Perhaps  the  man  and  woman 
ruled  by  even  the  noblest  themes,  lose  in  their  devotion  to 
any  one  absorbing  idea  something  of  the  essence  of  liberty. 
Any  enslavement  thus  becomes  incompatible  with  Freedom. 
Freedom  also  does  not  mean  restrictions  which  condemn 
and  kill  the  energies  and  activities  from  and  to  the  higher 
nature.  To  be  free  means  a  just  use  of  all  functions  and  all 
powers  leading  to  a  fine  and  unfolding  future  of  individuality 
and  race.  In  one  sense  perhaps  we  can  never  obtain  perfect 
freedom,  but  the  freest  man  or  woman  is  the  one  who  main- 
tains an  equilibrium  amidst  the  contending  storms  of  desires. 


388 


LITERARY  PAPERS 


But  to  "the  self  that  knows"  truths  take  on  in  this  knowing 
self  an  effulgence  incomparably  bright  with  former  states. 
To  truth's  justification  in  each  soul  and  guidance  to  its 
own  freedom,  must  self  look  to  self  alone,  and  be  its  own 
guide  to  that  point  which  makes  each  particular  individual 
free. 

How  incompatible  is  this  state  with  the  social  world  around 
us!  From  reading  Whitman,  especially  those  portions  of  his 
works  bidding  us  bow  in  obedience  to  law,  I  have  understood 
him  to  be  speaking  of  universal  spiritual  laws.  To  these,  when 
recognized,  we  owe  allegiance  and  obedience.  In  conforming 
and  bringing  our  spiritual  nature  into  touch  with  our  psychi- 
cal environment  we  become  freest  men  and  women.  These 
thoughts,  which  are  found  scattered  through  Whitman's 
writings,  as  it  were  like  jewelled  stars  in  the  vast  sky,  are  pre- 
sented concisely  in  his  prose  under  the  title  "  Freedom."  He 
says : — 

"It  is  not  only  true  that  most  people  entirely  misunder- 
stand Freedom,  but  I  sometimes  think  I  have  not  yet  met  one 
person  who  rightly  understands  it.  The  whole  Universe  is 
absolute  Law.  Freedom  only  opens  entire  activity  and  license 
under  the  law.  To  the  degraded  or  undeveloped  —  and  even 
to  too  many  others  —  the  thought  of  freedom  is  a  thought  of 
escaping  from  law,  —  which,  of  course,  is  impossible.  More 
precious  than  all  worldly  riches  is  Freedom  —  freedom  from 
the  painful  constipation  and  poor  narrowness  of  ecclesiasti- 
cism  —  freedom  in  manners,  habiliments,  furniture,  from 
the  silliness  and  tyranny  of  local  fashions  —  entire  freedom 
from  party  rings  and  mere  conventions  in  Politics  —  and 
better  than  all,  a  general  freedom  of  One's-Self  from  the 
tyrannic  dominations  of  vices,  habits,  appetites,  under  which 
nearly  every  man  of  us  (often  the  greatest  bawler  for  freedom) 
is  enslaved.  Can  we  attain  such  enfranchisement  —  the  true 
Democracy,  and  the  height  of  it?  While  we  are  from  birth 
to  death  the  subjects  of  irresistible  law,  enclosing  every  move- 
ment and  minute,  we  yet  escape,  by  a  paradox,  into  true  free 
will.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  we  only  attain  to  freedom  by 
a  knowledge  of,  and  implicit  obedience  to  Law.  Great  — 


WOMAN  AND   FREEDOM  IN  WHITMAN      389 

unspeakably  great — is  the  Will!  the  free  Soul  of  man!  At  its 
greatest,  understanding  and  obeying  the  laws,  it  can  then, 
and  then  only,  maintain  true  liberty.  For  there  is  to  the  highest 
that  law  as  absolute  as  any  —  more  absolute  than  any  —  the 
Law  of  Liberty.  The  shallow,  as  intimated,  consider  liberty 
a  release  from  all  law,  from  every  constraint.  The  wise  see 
in  it,  on  the  contrary,  the  potent  Law  of  Laws,  namely,  the 
fusion  and  combination  of  the  conscious  will,  or  partial  in- 
dividual law,  with  those  universal,  eternal,  unconscious  ones 
which  run  through  all  Time,  pervade  history,  prove  immor- 
tality, give  moral  purpose  to  the  entire  objective  world,  and 
the  last  dignity  to  human  life." 

Walt  Whitman  charges  us  here,  and  elsewhere  in  his  writ- 
ings, to  see  to  it  that  we  seek  this  freedom.  He  gives,  too,  so 
beautifully  the  progress  of  souls  as  the  means  of  gaining  im- 
mortality. But  the  soul  with  its  germs  of  unfolding  possibili- 
ties can  only  bud  and  blossom  in  free  fields. 

This  thought  finds  expression  by  Whitman  in  these  words :  — 

"O  sight  of  pity,  shame  and  dole! 
O  fearful  thought  —  a  convict  soul! " 

I  think  I  shall  not  only  express  my  own  but  the  thoughts 
of  others  when  I  say  that  after  all  Whitman  has  said  on 
woman  there  remains  a  feeling  of  dissatisfaction.  Woman  in 
many  characters  accompanies  the  poet,  but  there  comes  a 
moment  in  the  life  of  his  poems  when  his  path  seems  to  di- 
verge from  hers.  He  goes  on  his  way  to  heights  and  out- reach- 
ing vistas  alone.  Nature  becomes  more  and  more  a  source 
of  his  inspiration.  In  his  spiritual  growth  and  aspirations 
woman  is  not  found,  in  his  poems,  by  his  side.  Later  and 
later  she  is  more  and  more  out-distanced,  till  in  "Sands  of 
Seventy, "  with  the  exception  of  the  lines  in  tribute  to  "My 
science  friend,  my  noblest  woman  friend,"  woman's  influ- 
ence seems  nigh  dead. 

Nowhere  among  his  writings  do  I  find  woman  standing  out 
in  bold  relief  as  the  embodiment  of  great  emotions,  —  no- 
where does  she  rise  up  as  a  form  inspiratrice.  Nor  has  Whit- 
man embodied  woman's  thought,  passion,  and  power  in  such 


390  LITERARY  PAPERS 

frames  as  Ibsen  and  Browning  have  here  and  there  placed 
their  womanly  creations  in. 

Of  a  spiritual  womanly  ideal,  Whitman  has  reached  in 
these  words  his  highest  one:  "Prophetic  joys  of  better,  loftier 
love's  ideals,  the  divine  wife,  the  sweet,  eternal,  perfect  com- 
rade." In  the  passages  cited,  however,  where  he  treats  of 
woman  in  the  lower  planes  of  life,  he  has  been  full  and  clear 
in  his  utterance. 

Woman  divested  of  her  corporeal  attributes  as  a  reality  in 
comradeship,  has  not  become  a  part  of  the  poet's  theme.  And 
the  vast  areas  of  the  regions  of  the  super- sensuous  he  has  not 
explored  with  her.  Whitman  has  not  met  woman  on  a  plane 
of  reciprocity  where  truth,  liberty,  and  love  re-echo  from  soul 
to  soul  here  on  earth  or  in  thoughts  of  death,  and  where  the 
soul  of  man  and  woman  are  entwined  and  live  as  one  enfold- 
ing form.  Nor  has  Whitman  been  touched  by  the  quivering 
light  from  that  unseen  and  far-away  realm  where  thoughts 
on  life  and  immortality  pass  from  hand  to  heart,  from  lips 
to  soul,  to  that  blessed  unity  awaiting  man  and  woman,  which 
is  eternity's  own! 

But  this  silence  of  Whitman's  mind  is  not  inharmonious 
with  his  plan.  In  his  writings  he  distinctly  says  that  he  is 
describing  his  own  personality,  the  personality  of  its  own 
time  and  place.  And  there  are  chords  of  harmony  in  these 
relations  of  the  sexes  which  Whitman  never  touched  or 
heard.1 

To  me,  Whitman's  idea  of  comradeship  even  does  not 
clearly  stand  for  the  mutual  development  of  man  towards 
woman  or  woman  towards  man,  which  may  exist  and  be  the 
outcome  of  a  state  resting  on  perfect  freedom  and  liberty.  It 
may  be  that  woman  herself  alone  is  capable  of  giving  the 
truest  utterances  about  herself;  and  in  turning  to  the  pages 

1  Man  and  woman  are  parts  of  one  and  the  same  humanity,  "the  human 
integral,"  —  each  brings  something  which  is  specially  pertinent  to  individual 
sex.  Hope  for  humanity  in  the  future  would  seem  to  rest  on  the  co5peration  of 
the  sexes.  This  cooperation  may  or  may  not  be  based  on  unity  in  aspiration 
and  reciprocal  sympathy,  but  when  these  elements  arise,  they  do  not  inter- 
fere, on  the  contrary  they  aid  the  force  of  cooperation  for  the  good  of  others. 
Whitman's  position  towards  love  in  this  broadest  sense  is  a  negative  one. 


THE    CONCEPTION     OF    TRUTH    AMONG    THE 
GREEKS   AND   IN   BROWNING.1 

THE  poem  of  "Ixion"  suggests  the  aspirations  of  a  soul 
racked  on  the  fiery  wheel  of  life's  troubles  and  despair,  but 
a  soul  that  looks  beyond  the  torments  of  time  into  the  region 
of  purity,  hope,  and  truth  far  away;  for  in  all  conditions 
this  life's  journey  is  crowded  with  anxieties,  griefs,  and  care. 

It  is  impossible  to  escape  from  under  suffering's  yoke.  But 
in  reality,  these  so- considered  barriers  to  happiness  may  be 
made  the  means  to  elevate  the  soul  to  higher  planes;  and  the 
burden  of  the  yoke,  through  truth  and  hope,  is  changed  to 
a  silken  scarf,  if  the  eye  be  but  fixedly  turned  upward.  All 
sorrow  melts,  to  joy  when  the  realization  comes  to  the  toiler 
that  true  hSppiness  is  reached  through  pain.  Grief  may  be 
termed  an  essential  factor  in  the  evolution  of  character.  Suf- 
fering is  the  seasoning  of  life,  the  necessary  condiment  of 
existence.  There  is  no  tinge  of  pessimism  or  despair  in  the 
candid  heart  that  acknowledges  woe  as  the  common  heritage. 
But  in  recognition  of  poison  one  must  also  recognize  that 
an  antidote  is  to  be  applied.  From  the  world's  healers  many 
formulae  have  descended  to  us  to  save  the  human  heart  from 
utter  annihilation. 

The  Blessed  One  spoke  at  Benares:   "He  who  recognizes 
fthe  existence  of  suffering,  its  cause,  its  remedy,  and  its  cessa- 
tions has  fathomed  the  four  noble  Truths: — 
"The  Truth  of  suffering. 
"The  Truth  of  the  cause  of  suffering. 
"  The  Truth  of  the  cessation  of  suffering. 
"The  Truth  of  the  path  which  leads  to  the  cessation  of  suf- 
fering." 

1  Read  before  the  Boston  Browning  Society  November  17,  1895.  Preceded 
by  the  reading  of  "  Ixion." 


394  LITERARY  PAPERS 

Again  he  spoke:  "The  world  is  full  of  sin  and  sorrow, 
because  it  is  full  of  error.  Men  go  astray  because  they  think 
the  delusion  is  better  than  truth.  Rather  than  truth  they  fol- 
low error,  which  is  pleasant  to  look  at  in  the  beginning,  but 
causes  anxiety,  tribulation,  and  misery.  .  .  .  The  truth  is 
the  end  and  aim  of  all  existence,  and  the  worlds  originate  so 
that  the  truth  may  come  and  dwell  therein.  .  .  .  Those  who 
fail  to  aspire  to  the  truth  have  missed  the  purpose  of  life." 
"Truth  is  the  essence  of  life.  Truth  cannot  be  fashioned. 
Truth  is  one  and  the  same;  it  is  immutable.  Truth  is  above 
the  power  of  death;  it  is  omnipresent,  eternal,  and  most  glo- 
rious." Numerous  passages  of  the  "Dharma"  are  of  the 
same  purport.  "And  again  I  would  say,  Truth  sweeps  the 
world  of  error;  its  breath  scorches  the  false  and  untrue.  It 
is  the  great  Agni,  —  the  fire  god,  —  whose  emblematic  flames 
point  heavenward." 

The  religious  writers  denounce  the  liar  and  the  lying  life: 
"A  false  balance  is  abomination  to  the  Lord;  but  a  just 
weight  is  his  delight." 

The  teachings  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  battle  against 
falsehood  in  the  relations  of  man  to  man;  and  in  the  account 
of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  his  wife,  for  an  illustration,  the 
lie  and  fraud  which  stand  for  lying  and  perjury  against  our 
own  higher  nature  and  the  God  within  us  are  justly  punished 
by  death,  —  the  figurative  total  extinction  of  all  progressive 
powers. 

The  lode-star  of  philosophy  is  Truth:  Truth  the  unified 
principle  through  all  and  in  all.  From  Truth  our  being 
emanates  and  returns  by  Truth  to  its  source.  Truth  is  thus 
glorified  by  its  transitions,  defeats,  and  victories.  At  each 
tone  of  Truth's  gamut  rests  Browning,  who  emphasizes  as 
no  one  else  its  beauty  and  power. 

A  rapid  mental  survey  seems  to  show  that  the  writings  of 
the  past  lead  in  a  direct  line  to  Robert  Browning;  in  none 
of  these  writings,  epics  though  they  be  in  Truth's  cause, 
does  the  Truth  obtain  in  such  a  marked  degree,  under  so 
many  aspects  and  varieties  of  conditions,  as  in  our  poet's 
works.  In  every  state  and  degree  Truth  is  studied  from  its 


THE   GREEKS  AND  BROWNING  395 

earliest  manifestation  "deep  down  in  a  lie  ..  .  and  every 
lie  quick  with  the  germ  of  Truth,"  to  its  highest  query,  - 

"Friend,  did  you  need  an  optic  glass, 

Which  were  your  choice?  a  lens  to  drape 

In  ruby,  emerald,  chrysopras, 
Each  object  —  or  reveal  its  shape 

Clear  outlined,  past  escape, 

"The  naked  very  thing?  —  So  clear 

That,  when  you  had  the  chance  to  gaze, 
You  found  its  inmost  self  appear 

Through  outer  seeming  —  truth  ablaze, 
Not  falsehood's  fancy-haze?  " 

Not  only  once  or  in  any  limited  number  of  his  poems,  but  again 
and  again,  with  a  persistent  effort  born  of  the  firmest  convic- 
tion' and  intuition,  Browning  whispers,  pleads,  nay  thunders 
the  truth  of  Truth,  the  religion  of  Truth,  salvation  by  Truth; 
Truth  in  all  worldly  relations,  and  the  infinite  and  absolute 
Truth,  that  deepest  of  all  Truth  which  Shelley  calls  image- 
less.  Browning  makes  no  compromise  with  diplomacy  and 
social  usage.  Our  poet's  admiration  for  Shelley  does  not  cease 
with  approving  words.  Browning  carries  onward  the  torch  of 
Truth  from  him  he  calls  " Sun-treader,"  who  teaches,  "There  is 
one  road  to  peace,  and  that  is  Truth."  And  the  flame  grows 
brighter  with  the  onward  march,  for  our  poet  tells  us  that  — 

"  the  troubled  life 

Of  genius,  seen  so  gay  when  working  forth 
Some  trusted  end,  grows  sad  when  all  proves  vain. 
How  sad  when  men  have  parted  with  truth's  peace 
For  falsest  fancy's  sake!  " 

It  seems  almost  needless  to  mention  the  fact,  well  recognized 
by  all  Browning  readers  and  portrayed  in  his  poems,  of  the 
deep  impression  made  upon  Browning's  mind  by  his  wide 
and  careful  reading  of  Greek  literature.  Browning  not  only 
made  transcriptions  from  the  Greek  drama,  but  he  also  se- 
lected Greek  topics  as  subjects  for  several  of  his  poems. 
The  pearls  of  Greek  philosophy  and  higher  thought  he  set 


396  LITERARY  PAPERS 

in  verse  and  made  his  very  own.  The  ethical  life  of  the  Greeks, 
their  Gods,  religion,  belief  in  immortality,  and  thoughts  on 
life  and  death  he  brought  before  us  with  remarkable  clear- 
ness. 

In  the  earlier  Greek  writings,  Homer,  for  example,  the 
notion  of  Truth  is  not  so  exalted  as  in  later  Greek  writings. 
Its  appli cations  are  more  generally  to  concrete  objects,  and 
Truth  is  used  more  in  our  sense  of  verity  in  relation  to  some 
particular  situation,  as  when  Sarpedon  addresses  Glaucus, 
"But  now,  for  a  truth  ten  thousand  fates  of  death  press  upon 
us;"  or  in  another  passage,  "Thine  of  a  truth  will  shame 
and  disgrace  now  be,  O  Menelaus,  if  the  swift  dogs  tear  the 
faithful  companion  of  illustrious  Hercules  beneath  the  walls 
of  the  Trojans."  Hector  interrogates  the  maids  of  the  palace 
thus,  "I  pray  you, 'maids,  tell  me  truly  whither  went  white- 
armed  Andromache  from  the  palace?"  Him  then  the  active 
housewife  in  turn  addressed,  "Hector,  since  thou  biddest 
me  to  tell  the  truth,  she  has  not  gone  to  any  of  her  husband's 
sisters  —  but  she  went  to  the  lofty  tower  of  Ilium." 

Very  frequently  similar  passages  occur  in  the  Iliad  and 
other  Homeric  writings.  When  the  Gerenian  Knight  says, 
"Shall  I  speak  falsely  or  say  the  truth?"  doubtless  his  hesi- 
tation arose  from  fears  lest  his  forebodings  should  dampen 
the  courage  of  his  companions.  Nestor  well  comprehended 
the  imperfections  of  our  senses  and  the  relativity  of  Truth 
depending  upon  the  senses  as  its  source,  and  the  need  of 
cooperation  when  resorting  to  such  experience.  He  says, 
"  Truly,  my  friend,  thou  hast  spoken  all  these  things  aright,  — 
for  when  two  go  together,  the  one  perceives  before  the  other 
how  the  advantage  may  be.  But  if  one  being  alone  should 
observe  anything,  his  perception  is  more  tardy  and  his  judg- 
ment weak." 

It  was  a  Greek  principle  in  warfare  that  stratagem,  deceit, 
and  cunning  were  legitimate  means  to  employ  in  overcoming 
an  enemy,  although  treaties  with  the  enemy  were  concluded 
and  ratified  upon  oath  and  were  binding.  Ulysses  is  openly 
addressed  as  "Jove-sprung  son  of  Laertes,  much-scheming 
Ulysses,"  "Ulysses  of  many  wiles,"  "Cunning  Ulysses,"  and 


THE  GREEKS  AND   BROWNING  397 

again  he  is  "the  divine  Ulysses,"  who  although  divine  un- 
hesitatingly promises  to  save  the  life  of  the  weeping  Trojan, 
Dolon,  if  he  but  tells  correctly  why  he  comes  alone  from  the 
camp  towards  the  fleet.  The  reply  given,  Dolon  is  speedily 
dispatched;  promises  avail  naught,  falsehood  is  in  confor- 
mity with  custom. 

The  gods  held  similar  principles,  for  Agamemnon  com- 
plains how  Zeus,  the  son  of  Chronos,  entangled  him  in  a 
grievous  calamity.  He  calls  him  "cruel"  for  his  "plottings" 
and  evil  "  fraud."  Asius,  who  was  slain  by  Idomeneus,  groaned, 
smiting  both  his  thighs  and  exclaiming  indignantly,  "Father 
Zeus,  now  at  least  thou  hast  become  utterly  deceitful." 

That  Zeus  was  quite  capable  of  appreciating  the  inconve- 
niences arising  from  deception  is  fully  depicted  by  Homer  in 
a  little  scene  where  Here  figures  prominently.  No  doubt  some 
such  thoughts  as  these  were  in  the  mind  of  Zeus  on  that  occa- 
sion. 

"Womanhood,  —  'the  cat-like  nature, 

False  and  fickle,  vain  and  weak,'  — 
What  of  this  sad  nomenclature 
Suits  my  tongue  if  I  must  speak." 

The  Truth  ideal  evolves  and  announces  itself  with  bolder 
outline  as  the  centuries  roll  on.  But  here  and  there  in  the 
old  Greek  literature  occur  passages  suggestive  of  the  coming 
cumulative  height  of  Truth  which  found  full  expression  in 
Plato  and  later  writers.  Hesiod  extols  the  man  who  is  sincere 
with  his  friend.  The  eye  of  Apollo  is  described  as  "piercing 
beyond  all  other  eyes."  The  sun-god  is  "the  guardian  of 
moral  life  and  the  expression  of  moral  purity  and  exaltation." 
He  thus  stands  for  light,  enlightenment,  the  coming  of  Truth, 
as  Orestes  says,  "For  night  is  the  time  for  thieves,  the  light 
for  Truth." 

In  the  early  courts  of  justice  the  necessity  for  Truth  in 
political  and  legal  life  was  recognized,  and  the  Heliastic  oath 
concluded  with  these  words,  "May  much  good  befall  me  if 
I  keep  my  oath,  but  if  I  prove  false  to  it  may  destruction  fall 
upon  me  and  my  family."  However,  the  system  of  the  Heliaea, 
we  read,  led  to  much  uncertainty  in  the  administration  of 


398  LITERARY  PAPERS 

justice,  and  a  crop  of  sycophants  at  Athens  made  their  liv- 
ing by  levying  blackmail,  which  their  victims  were  afraid  to 
refuse. 

From  the  dramatic  writers  passages  bearing  on  Truth  in 
its  relations  with  practical  life  may  be  culled.  Many  of  these 
passages  refer  specifically  to  Truth.  In  the  words  of  Poly- 
nices,  "The  speech  of  Truth  is  simple  and  those  things  which 
are  just  need  not  wily  interpretation;  for  they  have  energy 
themselves;  but  the  unjust  speech,  unsound  in  itself,  re- 
quires cunning  preparation  to  gloze  it."  The  writings  of  the 
dramatists  besides  are  replete  with  passages  containing  the 
truths  of  Truth  in  sympathy  with  much  present-day  thought. 
Imperfect  though  words  be  to  express  the  full  purport  of  the 
idea,  nevertheless,  in  the  mouth  of  Eteocles  Euripides  shows 
what  power  he  thought  they  might  possess  uttered  in  Truth's 
cause.  Eteocles  addressed  his  mother  Jocasta  thus:  "But 
he  ought  to  effect  a  reconciliation  not  by  arms,  for  speech 
does  everything  which  even  the  sword  of  the  enemy  could 
do." 

Many  other  passages  might  be  pointed  out  in  which  occur 
beautiful  eulogies  to  Truth,  showing  the  dawn  in  the  Greek 
mind  of  the  idea  of  universal  Truth. 

But  too  often  a  feeling  that  truth  is  inexpedient  is  manifested, 
where  revenge,  hostility,  or  the  relations  of  the  sexes  are  con- 
cerned. Falsehood  and  deception  have  full  play  to  gain  some 
other  end  considered  good  in  itself.  Again,  some  truths  were  not 
considered  decorous  to  tell.  Electra  pleads  with  Orestes  that 
it  is  not  becoming  a  virgin  to  tell  why  her  most  unholy  mother 
slew  her  husband  Agamemnon. 

Deception  and  falsehood  are  often  practiced  in  Greek  drama 
in  connection  with  the  preservation  of  the  life  or  the  prestige 
of  an  individual;  apparently  untruthfulness  in  such  a  cause 
was  not  opposed  to  the  ethics  of  the  time.  Iphigenia  by  the  arts 
of  Ulysses,  under  pretense  of  being  wedded  to  Achilles,  was 
drawn  to  Aulis.  Later  on,  her  escape  from  Tauris  was  ef- 
fected by  a  plot  against  her  preserver.  Even  Pylades  in  the 
Greek  play  concealed  the  identity  of  himself  and  companion. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  just  here  what  an  advance  Goethe  has 


THE  GREEKS   AND  BROWNING  399 

made  in  the  treatment  of  the  same  situation.  In  Goethe's 
drama  Iphigenia  could  not  be  false  to  her  own  ideals  or  un- 
truthful to  Thoas,  her  king  and  preserver.  Also  in  Goethe's 
version  Orestes  cannot  deceive  by  uttering  a  false  word.  He 
exclaims  to  Iphigenia,  " Between  us  let  there  be  Truth!" 

The  proposal  of  Electra  to  the  two  friends  Orestes  and 
Pylades,  to  entrap  Hermione  by  falsehood,  murder  Helen, 
and  hold  the  virgin  for  hostage  as  a  means  of  saving  their  own 
lives,  is  not  only  considered  a  laudable  stratagem  worthy  of 
applause,  but  it  brings  down  upon  Electra  the  weighty  mantle 
of  Orestes'  words,  "O  thou  that  hast  indeed  the  mind  of  a 
man,  but  a  form  among  women  beautiful,  to  what  a  degree  art 
thou-  more  worthy  of  life  and  death  ?  " 

Stratagem  was  the  keynote  of  the  situation,  and  a  moral 
standard  where  cunning  and  lying  were  tolerated  was  also 
accompanied  by  a  lower  estimate  of  woman.  The  chorus 
laments,  "Women  were  born  always  to  be  in  the  way  of  what 
may  happen  to  men  to  the  making  of  things  unfortunate." 
That  woman  was  made  to  feel  this  of  herself,  is  mentioned 
more  than  once  by  the  old  tragedians.  In  Ion,  Creusa  laments, 
"For  women's  condition  is  a  difficult  one  among  men,  and  the 
good  being  mixed  up  with  the  evil,  we  are  objects  of  hatred. 
So  unhappy  are  we  by  nature." 

Inasmuch  as  the  Greek  notion  of  Truth  up  to  this  point 
includes  belief  in  the  ethical  necessity  of  true  speaking  and  the 
binding  qualities  of  an  oath  and  true  living  where  the  con- 
ditions of  life- motives  are  not  complex,  it  also  includes  the  set- 
ting aside  of  Truth  when  circumstances  according  to  the  Greek 
method  of  justice  demand  vengeance  or  revenge,  in  warfare, 
and  for  other  reasons,  where  Truth  is  not  considered  expedient. 
Also  hospitality,  so  strong  a  Greek  characteristic,  would  take 
precedence  to  Truth,  as  illustrated  in  the  situation  between 
Admetus  and  Hercules  in  Euripides'  "Alkestis." 

Browning  nowhere  approvingly  considers  setting  Truth  aside 
for  expediency.  As  a  seeker  after  Truth  he  starts  on  the  quest 
with  the  clear  understanding  that  he  will  carefully  and  con- 
scientiously give  to  the  world  the  details  of  his  search  and  his 
conclusions  on  the  problems  concerning  life  and  death,  and 


400  LITERARY  PAPERS 

his  forecast  of  what  is  to  be.  Oft  with  him  it  is  "the  pain 
of  Truth's  deliverance  troubling  all  within  me."  But  with 
courage  from  knowing  and  loving  he  speaks.  And  even  at  the 
last  he  would  face  Truth  whate'er  presents.  Those  words  of 
his  in  "Prospice"  spur  on  the  soul  to  pass  "Arch  Fear"  for 
the  Truth,  "for  Light,"  and  for  the  "Soul  of  his  soul." 

"I  was  ever  a  fighter,  so  —  one  fight  more, 

The  best  and  the  last! 
I  would  hate  that  death  bandaged  my  eyes,  and  forebore, 

And  bade  me  creep  past. 
No!  let  me  taste  the  whole  of  it,  fare  like  my  peers 

The  heroes  of  old, 
Bear  the  brunt,  in  a  minute  pay  glad  life's  arrears 

Of  pain,  darkness,  and  cold. 
For  sudden  the  worst  turns  the  best  to  the  brave, 

The  black  minute 's  at  end, 
And  the  elements'  rage,  the  fiend-voices  that  rave, 

Shall  dwindle,  shall  blend, 
Shall  change,  shall  become  first  a  peace  out  of  pain, 

Then  a  light,  then  thy  breast, 
O  thou  soul  of  my  soul!   I  shall  clasp  thee  again, 

And  with  God  be  the  rest!" 

Browning  is  all  patience  with  the  weak,  even  with  the  false  and 
untruthful;  but  the  lying  soul  is  hateful  to  him.  His  far  sight 
helps  him  to  see  that  in  the  distance  all  will  become  true  and 
truthful.  With  his  penetrating  vision  he  discerns  all  evils 
blending  into  the  good.  He  says,  "  So  may  a  glory  from  defect 
arise."  But  he  urges  action  as  essential  to  the  real  regen- 
eration. Action  towards  the  relatively  true  were  better  than 
stagnation  in  the  absolute.  And  all  evils  are  as  the  waters  of 
the  ocean  whose  waves  in  turn  and  time  will  surge  over  the 
shores  of  Goodness  and  Truth.  Yes,  through  the  evil  the  good 
is  found,  through  the  false  the  true,  and  in  "Fifine  at  the  Fair" 
he  tells  us — 

"We  must  endure  the  false,  no  particle  of  which 
Do  we  acquaint  us  with,  but  up  we  mount  a  pitch 
Above  it,  find  our  head  reach  truth,  while  hands  explore 
The  false  below." 


THE   GREEKS  AND  BROWNING  401 

So  it  is  in  the  consideration  of  phases  of  life  which  may 
be  classified  among  those  opposed  to  the  customs  of  society, 
convention,  or  morals.  Under  all  these  conditions  the  poet 
teaches,  be  true  to  ourselves,  no  matter  if  this  trueness  is  in 
conflict  with  all  outside.  This  truthfulness  to  ourselves  may 
not  be  rightful  action  as  we  may  some  day  see  when  we  have 
journeyed  farther  on;  but  it  is  the  right  course  for  us  if  in  all 
conscience  we  cannot  see  anything  better  and  truer  at  the 
moment.  And  such  a  thought  should  inspire  in  all  hearts 
toleration,  pity,  and  love  towards  our  fellow  beings  slower  than 
ourselves  in  the  upward  climb. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  well  to  hurry  the  climber  too  rapidly  in 
his  climb.  The  head  must  be  steady  and  the  pulse-beats 
strong.  Browning  gives  this  warning:  — 

"Are  you  adventurous  and  climb  yourself? 
Plant  the  foot  warily,  accept  a  staff, 
Stamp  only  where  you  probe  the  standing-point, 
Move  forward,  well  assured  that  move  you  may. 
Where  you  mistrust  advance,  stop  short,  there  stick! 
This  makes  advancing  slow  and  difficult?" 

He  also  tells  us,  — 

"Weakness  never  needs  be  falseness:  truth  is  truth  in  each  degree, 
Thunder  pealed  by  God  to  Nature  whispered  by  my  soul  to  me." 

"It  was  not  strange  I  saw  no  good  in  man, 
To  overbalance  all  the  wear  and  waste 
Of  faculties,  displayed  in  vain,  but  born 
To  prosper  in  some  better  sphere;  and  why? 
In  my  own  heart  love  had  not  been  made  wise 
To  trace  love's  faint  beginnings  in  mankind, 
To  know  even  hate  is  but  a  mask  of  love's, 
To  see  a  good  in  evil,  and  a  hope 
In  ill-success;  to  sympathize,  be  proud 
Of  their  half-reasons,  faint  aspirings,  dim 
Struggles  for  truth,  their  poorest  fallacies, 
Their  prejudice  and  fears  and  cares  and  doubts; 
All  with  a  touch  of  nobleness,  despite 
Their  error,  upward  tending  all  though  weak, 
Like  plants  in  mines  which  never  saw  the  sun, 


402  LITERARY  PAPERS 

But  dream  of  him,  and  guess  where  he  may  be, 
And  do  their  best  to  climb  and  get  to  him. 
All  this  I  knew  not,  and  I  failed." 

Effort  in  any  direction  is  better  than  the  greatest  of  evils  — 
inaction. 

Take  the  situation  in  "The  Statue  and  the  Bust,"  where 
the  poet  tells  that  the  lady,  resolving  on  her  course,  though  it 
be  to  break  her  vow,  — 

"Turned  on  her  side  and  slept.    Just  so! 
So  we  resolve  on  a  thing  and  sleep: 
So  did  the  lady  ages  ago." 

By  flight,  she  thought,  — 

"  '  I  save  my  soul  —  but  not  to-morrow  '  — 
(She  checked  herself  and  her  eye  grew  dim) 
'  My  father  tarries  to  bless  my  state; 
I  must  keep  it  one  day  more  for  him.'  " 

Thus  how  often  consideration  for  the  sensitiveness  of  others 
defeats  prompt  action! 
Later  in  the  poem  listen  to  the  poet's  own  words, 

"I  hear  you  reproach,  'But  delay  was  best, 
For  their  end  was  a  crime.'  —  Oh,  a  crime  will  do, 
As  well,  I  reply,  to  serve  for  a  test, 
As  a  virtue  golden  through  and  through, 
Sufficient  to  vindicate  itself, 
And  prove  its  worth  at  a  moment's  view!" 

Browning  insists  upon  the  wrong  there  is  in  the  silence 
which  makes  the  lie.  A  procrastinating  soul  sounds  its  own 
death  warrant.  He  exclaimed,  — 

"  If  you  choose  to  play, 
Let  a  man  contend  to  the  uttermost 
For  his  life's  set  prize,  be  it  what  it  will !  " 

The  sin  he  imputes  — 

"To  each  frustrate  ghost 
Ts  —  the  unlit  lamp  and  the  ungirt  loin, 
Though  the  end  in  sight  was  a  vice,  I  say." 


THE   GREEKS  AND   BROWNING  403 

In  this  poem  Browning  carries  out  the  idea  of  Truth  to 
self  to  the  extreme  verge  of  its  limit.  He  does  not  place  the 
given  incident  of  the  poem  as  a  model  of  virtue  nor  one  that 
the  highest  living  would  contain;  but  he  shows  the  hateful- 
ness  of  subterfuge  and  indecision,  and  the  soul-perjury  of  this 
woman  who  could  take  an  unmeaning  nuptial  vow.  Even  if 
death  followed  her  words,  she  had  not  courage  to  speak  and 
be  true  to  herself.  Browning  does  not  advocate  vice  instead 
of  virtue;  but  the  greater  of  the  evils  is  the  life  wasted  in 
unliving  resolutions. 

"Aspire,  break  bounds!  I  say, 
Endeavor  to  be  good,  and  better  still, 
And  best!    Success  is  naught,  endeavor  's  all." 

Sin,  punishment,  and  the  recognition  of  past  sins  and  evils 
which  it  is  the  lot  of  innumerable  beings  during  their  evo- 
lutionary passage  to  experience,  are  the  prelude  to  hope  and 
the  eternal  progressive  translations  of  the  soul. 

"  Strive,  mankind,  though  strife  endure  through  endless  obstruction 
Stage  after  stage,  each  rise  marred  by  as  certain  a  fall!" 

but  out  of  the  wreck  "to  rise"  where  light  is  in  aspiration  and 
hope.  Thus  it  is  in  the  long  outlook  when  the  false  resolves 
itself  into  the  true.  Falsehood,  deceit,  duplicity,  and  lies  are 
the  weights  and  hindrances  to  character  and  soul  building; 
while  open  avowal,  sincerity,  and  truthful  action  and  speaking 
under  all  circumstances  to  the  degree  of  individual  know- 
ledge are  the  props  to  the  higher  planes. 

What  may  often  be  considered  defects  and  the  reverse  of 
virtue  may  indeed  be  but  the  accidents  of  character  and 
tolerable  when  combined  with  truthful  action.  The  poet's 
meaning  in  the  preceding  words  is  not  distorted,  for  in  his 
schedule  of  true  living,  duty's  place  and  share  are  fully  ex- 
pressed over  and  over  again.  In  "Saint  Martin's  Summer" 
he  says  — 

"Give  my  frank  word  pardon! 

What  if  I  —  somehow,  somewhere 

Pledged  my  soul  to  endless  duty 

Manv  a  time  and  oft?" 


404  LITERARY  PAPERS 

In  "Bifurcation"  he  says:  — 

"  Duty  and  love,  one  broad  way,  were  the  best  — 
Who  doubts?    But  one  or  other  was  to  choose, 
I  chose  the  darkling  half." 

Where  duty  and  sentiment  conflict  and  duty  is  chosen,  love 
should  not  be  simulated.  Life's  "worn  causeway"  should 
not  be  walked  "arm  in  arm  with  friend,"  while  caressing  the 
ear  with  words  of  "truth  turned  falsehood."  "How  I  loathe  a 
flower,  how  prize  the  pavement!"  It  is  right  that  the  one  for 
whom  we  choose  duty  should  know  how  few  of  heart's  flowers 
we  have  to  offer.  Dead  fruit  as  well  as  sacrifices  are  not  always 
acceptable  gifts :  this  should  not  be  forgotten  by  altruists. 

The  Truth  is  often  painful  to  tell;  it  is  painful  to  hear. 

Truth  in  whatsoever  way  it  comes,  even  if  it  brings  a  shock, 
is  better  than  a  lie.  Browning  speaks  of  the  — 

"rough  but  wholesome  shock, 
And  accident  which  comes  to  kill  or  cure. 
A  jerk  which  means  a  dislocated  joint! 
Such  happy  chance,  at  cost  of  twinge,  no  doubt, 
Into  the  socket  back  again  put  truth, 
And  stopped  the  limb  from  longer  dragging  lie." 

And  for  those  who  have  grown  indolent  with  "maws  out  of 
sorts"  he  prescribes  a  healthful  cure. 

"  Don't  nettles  make  a  broth  — 
Wholesome  for  blood  grown  lazy  and  thick  ?  " 

Very  few  pages  of  Browning's  works  do  not  contain  some 
reference  to  Truth.  It  is  always  to  the  same  purport;  death 
were  better  than  untrue  life;  for  death  will  bring  the  truth  of 
many  a  thing  to  the  surface.  This  is  reasoned  over  in  the  poem 
"  Before  and  After."  Willingness  to  die  for  the  truth  is  brought 
out  witr/telling  power  in  "Ned  Bratts"  and  "In  the  Balcony." 

To  give  up  worldly  honors  for  Truth  is  beautifully  and 
simply  expressed  by  Colombe.  "I  take  him,  —  give  up  Juliers 
and  the  world."  And  in  "Daniel  Bartoli"  the  wife  of  but  an 
hour,  to  save  her  husband's  "honor"  and  her  "soul, "  gives  up 
the  duke,  and  wealth.  How  little  are  the  materialities  of  life, 


THE   GREEKS  AND   BROWNING  405 

in  comparison  with  right  action,  prompted  by  Truth!  Even 
words  which  poorly  express  our  thoughts  and  are  susceptible 
of  misunderstanding,  when  Truth  is  back  of  them,  fire  nearer 
the  bull's  eye. 

"From  truth 

Whate'er  the  force  wherewith  you  fling  your  speech, 
Be  sure  that  speech  will  lift  you,  by  rebound 
Somewhere  above  the  lowness  of  a  lie!" 

In  those  forcible  lines  in  Francis  Furini  to  the  "Bounteous 
God,  deviser  and  dispenser  of  all  gifts  "  the  poet  exclaims,  — 

"  True  —  true  —  all  too  true  — 
No  gift  but,  in  the  very  plenitude 
Of  its  perfection,  goes  maimed,  misconstrued 
By  wickedness  or  weakness  :  still,  some  few 
Have  grace  to  see  thy  purpose,  strength  to  mar 
Thy  work  by  no  admixture  of  their  own, 
—  Limn  truth  not  falsehood,  bid  us  love  alone, 
The  type  untampered  with,  the  naked  star!" 

Browning  is  for  Justice  too.  He  is  neither  arrogant  nor 
falsely  modest.  He  is  Aristotelian  in  considering  the  aim  of 
man  to  be  happiness,  in  its  highest  and  purest  sense,  and  he 
believes  that  this  aim  can  be  reached  only  through  virtue, 
man  being  born  with  a  natural  capacity  for  virtue.  He  will 
have  nothing  to  do  with  those  worldly  philosophers  who 
would  call  Truth  "the  lancet  of  the  heart "  and  say  "not  all 
truths  can  be  spoken  and  't  is  dangerous,  yet  a  good  man 
cannot  avoid  speaking  the  truth." 

He  tells  us  of  the  liar  being  so  from  habit,  lies  being  a  part 
of  his  stock  in  trade,  and  in  harmony  with  a  lying  character 
which  can  reason  itself  into  believing  its  own  lies;  Browning 
expresses  a  thought  akin  to  Plato's  of  the  romancing  metier 
of  poets,  "who  sing  how  Greeks  that  never  were,  in  Troy 
which  never  was,  did  this  or  the  other  impossible  thing!" 
nor  does  he  countenance  good  conduct  and  truthfulness 
when  these  arise  for  the  reward  or  praise  of  fellow  men. 

Browning  is  in  accord  with  Aristotle  in  denouncing  abstract 
falsehood  as  bad  and  blamable  and  in  declaring  truth  as  honor- 


4o6  LITERARY  PAPERS 

able  and  praiseworthy.  He  shows  if  the  character  is  thoroughly 
impregnated  with  truth  the  outward  expressions  are  truth- 
ful, and  the  man  "  who  is  cautious  of  falsehood  for  its  own  sake 
will  surely  be  cautious  of  it  as  being  disgraceful."  Aristotle 
advises  to  decline  "from  the  truth  rather  on  the  side  of  de- 
fect; for  this  appears  to  be  in  better  taste  because  excesses 
are  hateful."  This  means  that  it  is  not  truthful  to  volunteer 
true  statements  regarding  persons  or  affairs  for  the  sake  of 
talking,  as  this  tends  towards  arrogance,  unless  by  withholding 
information  through  false  modesty  harm  should  befall  our 
neighbor. 

The  individual  conscience  alone  can  be  the  guide  to  the  mid- 
dle path  oj  Truth.  To  give  one's  own  conscience  into  the  keep- 
ing of  another  must  in  the  end  prove  baneful.  A  close  study 
of  Browning's  poems  and  the  application  of  their  ethics  to 
every- day  life  will  prove  useful  in  aiding  the  growth  of  the 
individual  conscience.  Many  conditions  of  woman's  social 
state  have  seemed  to  justify  her  in  resorting  to  deceit  and  false- 
hood, the  weapons  of  the  weaker,  for  these  alone  were  her 
means  to  sustain  and  defend  herself.  Indirectness  is  the  neces- 
sary outcome  of  inequality.  If  women  had  once  seen  this 
and  combined  for  equality  and  truth,  no  matter  what  the 
results,  Browning  need  not  have  remarked  upon  man's  truth 
subduing  — 

"for  sake  of  chivalry  and  ruth 
Its  rapier  edge  to  suit 
The  bulrush-spear  womanly  falsehood  fights  with!" 

Just  here  scientific  training  is  of  value  in  strengthening 
the  character  and  in  guiding  the  senses  to  a  nicer  percep- 
tion of  the  Truth.  Any  one  may  prove  this  to  himself  by  going 
for  the  first  time  into  a  physical  laboratory  and  attempting 
to  carry  out  even  the  simplest  experiments  requiring  the  per- 
fect adjustment  of  muscular  action  with  vision.  The  inability 
of  the  novice  will  be  proven  in  almost  every  case.  Likewise 
such  training,  while  aiding  the  cultivation  of  more  exact  touch 
and  sight,  is  of  value  as  bringing  the  Will  into  concentrated 
action  and  coordination  with  muscular  movement.  Scientific 


THE   GREEKS  AND   BROWNING  407 

research  is  the  effort  to  reach  a  new  point  of  view.  The  in- 
vestigator requires  a  preliminary  training  of  the  senses,  and 
he  needs  an  endowment  of  well-developed  mental  qualities, 
especially  judgment. 

Above  all  the  worker  must  give  his  allegiance  to  Truth. 
He  works  to  find  the  absolute  Truth.  Many  times  failure 
rewards  his  pains,  even  the  slightest  grasp  at  Truth  eludes 
him,  and  the  reality  is  never  reached.  But  the  scientist  in 
dedicating  his  life  to  the  search  for  the  Truth  stands  in  the 
relation  of  one  who  would  bring  his  world  of  relativities  into 
touch  with  the  world  of  the  ideal,  into  the  actual  world  of 
living  Truth.  Thus  he  unifies  his  outer  and  inner  life.  He 
becomes  not  only  one  who  says,  "I  still  must  hoard  and  heap 
and  class  all  truths  with  one  ulterior  purpose;  I  must  know!" 
but  also  his  truth  teaches  him  to  know  that  Truth,  God,  and 
Love  are  one. 

That  one  whose  brow  the  kiss  of  the  higher  imagination  and 
intuition  has  sealed  its  own,  be  he  poet,  scientist,  or  artist, 
is  one  with  a,  noble  race  of  bards. 

Truth  pertaining  to  phenomena  must  be  in  a  measure 
relative.  The  relativity  of  Truth  is  ever  shifting  its  angle  of 
refraction  as  the  number  of  its  facets  increases  through  ex- 
perience. In  personal  experience  what  may  seem' Truth  in 
early  years  may  not  remain  wholly  Truth  in  later  years.  All 
grades  of  knowledge  from  a  fixed  point  of  view  may  be  Truth 
in  their  relation  to  other  objects  on  the  same  level.  But  in 
the  advancing  process  the  point  of  view  will  not  be  the  same 
for  those  who  have  watched  the  Truth's  unfolding.  Other 
scenes  rise  in  the  vista,  truths  for  the  nonce,  but  the  old  truths 
remain  on  their  levels  just  as  much  Truth  as  before. 

They  are  the  foothills  on  which  we  once  stood  and  from 
which  we  have  climbed  to  the  higher  lands.  Our  horizon 
widens.  Our  vision  embraces  the  plains  as  well  as  the  tower- 
ing peaks  ahead  with  their  bold  traceries  screening  the  farthest 
distance.  Looking  onward  from  the  halfway  heights  of  Truth 
across  the  mountain  ranges,  rising  one  higher  than  the  other, 
until  the  most  distant,  and  last  to  be  traversed,  the  impen- 
etrable great  Himalayan  snow  fortresses,  loom  against  the 


4o8  LITERARY  PAPERS 

sky  of  eternity,  —  then  the  wise  explorer  knows  full  well  that 
the  every- day  mountain  shoe  and  axe  of  these  lower  ranges 
will  not  carry  him  on  to  those  walls  of  everlasting  white- 
ness. To  scale  these  summits  requires  new  devices.  The 
would-be  pioneer  must  start  on  a  journey  where  experience 
and  knowledge  from  without  are  of  little  avail.  These  ad- 
juncts have  brought  him  far,  but  they  cannot  help  him  now. 

With  Browning's  attempt  to  ascend  these  altitudes  he  never 
loses  sight  of  the  lowlands,  and  from  time  to  time  he  returns 
to  the  level  to  gain  new  force  in  order  to  advance  a  step  higher. 
He  does  not  forget  the  heights  from  which  he  has  descended, 
but  he  reminds  his  readers  of  the  "resting-place,  the  C  major 
of  this  life,"  and  the  obligation  to  use  this  life's  materialities 
for  climbing  and  the  soul's  growth.  He  gathers  happiness, 
too,  from  earth's  favors,  as  well  as  from  earth's  bitters. 

"Through  wholesome  hard,  sharp  soft,  your  tooth  must  bite 

Ere  reach  the  birdling." 
He  says,  — 

"  Man  I  am  and  man  would  be  ...  merest  man  and  nothing  more," 
and  in  the  same  poem  he  exclaims,  — 

"Now  on  earth,  to  stand  suffices." 

The  poet  teaches  that  although  he  and  a  chosen  few  may 
advance  farther  on  the  snows,  still  those  in  the  valleys  who 
desire  to  climb  must  be  fed  and  nourished  by  the  exertions  of 
their  stronger  fellow  men. 

"God  thus  admonished:   'Hast  thou  marked  my  deed? 
Which  part  assigned  by  providence  dost  judge 
Was  meant  for  man's  example?    Should  he  play 
The  helpless  weakling,  or  the  helpful  strength 
That  captures  prey  and  saves  the  perishing? 
Sluggard,  arise;  work,  eat,  then  feed  who  lack!' 
Waking,  'I  have  arisen,  work  I  will, 
Eat,  and  so  following.    Which  lacks  food  the  more, 
Body  or  soul  in  me?   I  starve  in  soul; 
So  may  mankind;  and  since  men  congregate 
In  towns,  not  woods,  —  to  Ispahan  forthwith.' " 


THE   GREEKS  AND   BROWNING  409 

Browning  in  his  earlier  and  later  poems  insists  that  although 
work  we  must,  the  motives  should  be  Truth  and  Duty,  never 
gain.  The  soft  voice  whispered,  "Wilt  thou  adventure  for 
my  sake  and  man's  apart  from  all  reward?" 

"'Why  from  the  world,'  Ferishtah  smiled,  'should  thanks 

Go  to  this  work  of  mine?  .  .  .  Justice  says: 
Be  just  to  fact,  or  blaming  or  approving: 
But  —  generous?   No,  nor  loving! 

"Loving!   what  claim  to  love  has  work  of  mine? 
Concede  my  life  were  emptied  of  its  gains 

To  furnish  forth  and  fill  work's  strict  confine, 

Who  works  so  for  the  world's  sake  —  he  complains 
With  cause  when  hate,  not  love,  rewards  his  pains. 

I  looked  beyond  the  world  for  truth  and  beauty: 

Sought,  found,  and  did  my  duty." 

The  impress  of  Platonic  thought  concerning  truth  and 
ideality  are  apparent  in  passages  of  "Pauline"  and  "Para- 
celsus." Indeed  the  impression  is  not  lost  in  other  poems 
running  with  the  poet's  advancing  years,  and  such  thoughts 
are  sprinkled  as  gems  through  "Asolando." 

Plato  tells  us  that  the  kind  of  rhetoric  a  wise  man  should 
concern  himself  with  is  truthful  speaking  and  the  cautious 
denning  of  words.  Words  are  misleading,  and  the  utmost 
care  must  be  observed  in  the  rightful  appropriation  of  names. 

Flimsy  word  architecture  of  gaudy  structure  is  not  for 
Browning's  ideal  city.  He  warns  us  that  "  words  are  but  words 
and  wind,  why  let  the  wind  sing  in  your  ear,  bite  sounding  to 
your  brain?"  Not  from  names  but  from  their  essences  we  must 
really  learn  of  things.  Phaedrus  is  bid  to  go  and  tell  Lysias 
and  other  composers  of  speeches  —  Homer,  and  other  writers 
of  poems,  Solon  and  others  who  compose  political  discourses 
called  laws  —  he  is  bid  to  say  to  all  of  them  if  their  compo- 
sitions are  based  on  knowledge  of  the  Truth,  and  they  can 
defend  or  prove  them,  then  they  are  to  be  called  not  only 
poets,  orators,  legislators,  but  they  are  worthy  of  a  higher 
name :  they  are  lovers  of  wisdom  or  philosophers.  This  worthy 
name  of  lover  of  wisdom  and  philosopher  is  Robert  Browning's, 


4io  LITERARY  PAPERS 

as  any  one  may  prove  by  testing  and  proving  in  daily  life  the 
poet's  far-reaching  conclusions.  Now  what  is  the  meaning  of 
all  this  externality  of  true  speaking,  true  living,  true  searching  ? 
Absolutely  meaningless  nothings,  as  external  expressions  pure 
and  simple;  but  pregnant,  all  meaning  and  powerful  as  forms 
in  which  our  thoughts  live  and  breathe.  These  thoughts  to  be 
vital  must  be  centred  in  the  inner  shrine  of  being  with  God; 
they  must  be  firmly  anchored  by  intent  in  the  stream  of  Truth. 
Then,  and  not  until  then,  will  the  outward  forms  of  our  speech 
and  activity  become  vitalized  entities,  and  not  prove  worthless 
husks. 

At  the  moment  of  death  or  great  danger  the  veil  is  often- 
times raised  and  delusions  vanish. 

"At  the  word,  the  woman's  eyes,  slow  wandering  till  they  neared 
The  blue  eyes  o'er  the  bush  of  honey-colored  beard, 
Took  in  full  light  and  sense  and — tore  to  rags  some  dream 
Which  hid  the  naked  truth  —  O  loud  and  long  the  scream 
She  gave,  as  if  all  power  of  voice  within  her  throat 
Poured  itself  wild  away  to  waste  in  one  dread  note!" 

The  thought  of  death  brings  another  thought  that  beyond 
death  higher  Truth  abides.  When  Alkestis  in  "  Balaustion's 
Adventure"  was  borne  to  take  her  last  look  at  the  sun,  and  the 
living  to  look  their  last  at  Alkestis,  Balaustion  says,  — 

"We  grew  to  see  in  that  severe  regard,  .  .  . 
What  Death  meant  when  he  called  her  consecrate 
Henceforth  to  Hades.    I  believe,  the  sword  — 
Its  office  was  to  cut  the  soul  at  once 
From  life,  —  from  something  in  this  world  which  hides 
Truth,  and  hides  falsehood,  and  so  lets  us  live 
Somehow." 

Often  the  realization  of  our  true  purpose  of  living  becomes 
known  to  us  by  ways  and  means  insignificant  in  themselves 
but  great  as  their  influences  turn  us  to  broader  living  and 
knowledge  of  good  and  evil.  The  flight  of  the  Duchess  is  an 
incident  where  this  thought  finds  expression.  Events  in  our 
past  lives  may  in  years  after,  through  memory,  be  powerful 
movers  in  freeing  us  from  the  fetters  of  Ignorance.  Then, 


THE   GREEKS  AND  BROWNING  411 

again,  in  liberating  the  desires  from  worldly  strivings  and 
seeking  refuge  in  the  domain  of  thought,  the  soul  becomes 
strong  in  distinguishing  good  from  evil,  truth  from  error :  — 

"And,  as  in  moments  when  the  past 
Gave  partially  enfranchisement,  he  [Sordello]  cast 
Himself  quite  through  mere  secondary  states 
Of  his  soul's  essence,  little  loves  and  hates, 
Into  the  mid-deep  yearnings  overlaid 
By  these;  as  who  should  pierce  hill,  plain,  grove,  glade, 
And  on  into  the  very  nucleus  probe 
That  first  determined  there  exists  a  globe. 
As  that  were  easiest,  half  the  globe  dissolved, 
So  seemed  Sordello's  closing  truth  evolved 
By  his  flesh-half's  break  up;  the  sudden  swell 
Of  his  expanding  soul  showed  111  and  Well, 
Sorrow  and  Joy,  Beauty  and  Ugliness, 
Virtue  and  Vice,  the  Larger  and  the  Less." 

Browning's  standpoint,  besides  embracing  the  use  of  this 
world's  means,  includes  also  the  comprehension  of  the  living 
death  of  the  philosopher,  the  living  beyond  the  dominion  of 
bodily  pleasures  and  of  the  senses.  And  with  Plato  he  would 
rid  himself  of  eyes  and  ears  and  with  the  light  of  the  mind  only 
behold  the  light  of  Truth.  For  truthfulness  is  the  quality 
a  philosopher  should  possess  and  falsehood  should  be  held  in 
detestation. 

There  are  the  two  kinds  of  knowledge,  one  derived  from 
without,  the  other  from  within,  the  two  halves  of  the  perfect 
whole. 

"Thus:  I  possess 

Two  sorts  of  knowledge,  —  one  vast,  shadowy, 
Hints  of  the  unbounded  aim  I  once  pursued; 
The  other  consists  of  many  secrets,  caught 
While  bent  on  noble  prize,  perhaps  a  few 
Prime  principles  which  may  conduct  to  much.  .  .  . 
And  I  betake  myself  to  study 
Till  patient  searchings  after  hidden  lore 
Half  wring  truth  from  its  prison." 


4i2  LITERARY  PAPERS 

Frequent  passages  in  Browning's  works  uphold  the  belief 
that  the  inner  knowledge  is  the  unerring.  He  writes,  — 

"  Alack,  one  lies  oneself 
Even  in  the  stating  that  one's  end  was  truth, 
Truth  only,  if  one  states  as  much  in  words  ! 
Give  me  the  inner  chamber  of  the  soul 
For  obvious  easy  argument ;  't  is  there 
One  pits  the  silent  truth  against  a  lie." 

Browning  would  not  have  the  training  of  the  senses  and 
the  knowledge  of  outer  things  neglected.  For  training  will 
help  to  perfect  what  is  so  imperfect  in  the  crude.  But  this 
outer  knowledge  can  never  take  the  place  of  its  higher,  purer 
type.  There  is  no  conflict  between  the  two  kinds  of  know- 
ledge. They  are  each  distinct  and  parts  of  the  immense 
scheme  of  the  universe  all  tending  to  unity.  And  he  who 
from  the  realm  of  phenomena  can  gather  strength  to  look 
and  hear  where  neither  body's  eye  nor  ear  serve,  is  he  "who 
hears  the  poem,  therefore  sees  the  play." 

Although  Browning  has  drunk  deeply  of  the  philosophic 
well,  and  in  "Pauline"  describes  such  a  personality  as  one  — 

"full  of  bliss,  who  lived 
With  Plato  and  who  had  the  key  to  life; 
And  I  had  dimly  shaped  my  first  attempt, 
And  many  a  thought  did  I  build  up  on  thought, 
As  the  wild  bee  hangs  cell  to  cell;  in  vain, 
For  I  must  still  advance,  no  rest  for  mind." 

Yet  he  carries  his  thought  beyond  the  pale  of  philosophic 
systems  onward  where  his  soul's  eye  dimly  perceives,  yet  per- 
ceives the  outer  violet  border  of  the  infinite  dawn.  He  yearns 
to  stand  on  the  perfect  sphere  of  the  universe  to  look  on 
God,— 

"As  though  naught  else  existed,  we  alone!" 
"Do  I  not  pant  when  I  read  of  thy  consummate  power, 
And  burn  to  see  thy  calm  pure  truths  out-flash 
The  brightest  gleams  of  earth's  philosophy?"     , 

To  this  Truth,  the  full-orbed  Truth  of  the  creative,  actual, 
living  universe,  all  effort  tends.  The  aim  of  life's  journey  is  the 
qualification  of  ourselves  through  good  and  evil  to  unite  with 


THE   GREEKS  AND  BROWNING  413 

the  throbbing  currents  of  the  Absolute.  And  life  is  worth 
living  for  the  experiences  happy  or  sad  which  we  gather 
from  this  world's  plane  for  help  of  soul's  growth  and  pro- 
gress. 

But  great  as  these  are  they  are  not  alone  enough;  there  is 
yet  another  power,  and  this  is  to  bring  out  and  express  the 
Truth  within  ourselves  which  lives  in  greater  or  less  degree 
and  finds  expression  from  intuition  in  highly  wrought  results  of 
Science,  Poetry,  or  Art. 

" Truth  is  within  ourselves;  it  takes  no  rise 
From  outward  things,  whate'er  you  may  believe. 
There  is  an  inmost  centre  in  us  all, 
Where  Truth  abides  in  fulness;  and  around, 
Wall  upon  wall,  the  gross  flesh  hems  it  in, 
This  perfect,  clear  perception  —  which  is  truth, 
A  baffling  and  perverting  carnal  mesh 
Binds  it,  and  makes  all  error;   and  to  know 
Rather  consists  in  opening  out  a  way 
Whence  the  imprisoned  splendor  may  escape, 
Than  in  effecting  entry  for  a  light 
Supposed  to  be  without.    Watch  narrowly 
The  demonstration  of  a  truth,  its  birth, 
And  you  trace  back  the  effluence  to  its  spring 
And  source  within  us;  where  broods  radiance  vast, 
To  be  elicited  ray  by  ray,  as  chance 
Shall  favor." 

This  is  a  stage  we  have  reached  when  the  eye  discerns 
"truer  truths." 

This  inner  enlightenment  and  guidance  emanating  from  the 
very  core  of  the  man  or  woman  does  not,  to  me,  exclude  the 
thought  of  the  striking  in  from  outward  of  subtle  powers, 
once  the  passage  is  effected  by  Truth's  exit  from  within.  These 
outer  influences  react  on  the  hidden  forces  which  they  strengthen 
and  reinforce.  A  similar  interplay  of  powers  and  intuitions 
goes  on  in  the  plane  of  the  world's  knowledge:  "A  pinch 
of  powder,"  and  "  harmless  dewdrops,"  "  mixed  nothings 
make  somethings,"  and  the  "lip's  mere  tremble,"  and  "cheek's 
just  change  of  color  "  effect  heart's  earthquake. 


4i4  LITERARY   PAPERS 

Likewise,  — 

"You  let  your  eyes  meet  mine,  touch  what  you  term 
Quietude,  —  that 's  an  universe  in  germ  — 
The  dormant  passion  needing  but  a  look 
To  burst  into  immense  life!" 

Many  examples  will  occur  to  one,  not  only  in  Browning's 
life  and  soul  studies  of  those  out  and  in  soul  flashes,  but  in 
the  lives  of  real  men  and  women  where  this  sudden  and  de- 
liberate self-dedication  of  the  person  to  a  fixed  and  noble 
course  quite  opposite  to  the  one  before  led  denotes  the  ap- 
prehensiveness  and  readiness  of  the  individual  to  respond 
to  an  inspiring  voice.  It  is  the  voice  of  God,  whether  sound- 
ing within  or  without  us.  It  speaks  in  a  language  all  may 
learn,  and  needs  no  interpreter  beyond  the  individual  self. 
The  sinner  or  saint  alike  may  be  spoken  to,  but  the  ear  which 
has  once  heard  will  be  deaf  no  more. 

Perhaps  nowhere  is  this  responsiveness  to  reaction  more 
markedly  portrayed  than  in  the  scene  between  Ottima  and 
Sebald.  In  that  situation  the  voice  of  God,  by  the  simple 
instrument  of  a  young  girl's  song,  penetrates  above  the  words 
and  storms  of  passion,  and  the  Truth,  bursting  forth  over 
that  scene  in  all  its  horror  and  bareness,  strikes,  destroys, 
and  creates  the  man  and  woman  anew.  They  now  possess 
the  knowledge,  by  Truth,  of  passion  and  of  the  higher  Love 
beyond  the  material  which  their  own  love  so  dimly  fore- 
shadowed. Instantly  was  effected  the  transmutation  of  earthly 
love  to  hatred  and  the  passing  over  from  earthly  to  heavenly 
Love  and  unity  with  God. 

The  sudden  flashing  and  forcible  emanation  of  Truth 
inspires  as  the  creative  God-principle  held  by  every  woman 
and  man  in  common  with  others,  worlds,  and  universes.  Man 
the  creation  is  also  as  a  spark  one  with  the  Creator. 

Browning  says,  "Truth  remains  true,  the  fault's  in  the 
prover."  Perhaps  it  may  be  the  fault  of  our  methods  of  search- 
ing, if  Truth's  light  is  withheld  for  a  time.  But  with  a  clear 
intent  and  as  faithful  workers,  great  or  small,  all  ranking  the 
same  before  God,  with  God's  lamp  pressed  close  to  breast, 


THE   GREEKS  AND  BROWNING  415 

striving  to  be  truthful  in  life  and  thought,  seekers  after  ever- 
growing truth  and  light,  we  shall  become  worthy  of  a  wider 
philosophy  and  religion  including  all  men  and  women  in 
ties  of  loving  and  truthful  sympathy.  Truth  will  not  lead  us 
wrong,  though  for  a  moment  we  are  plunged  "into  a  dark 
tremendous  sea  of  cloud.  It  is  but  for  a  time."  We  shall 
arise. 

I,  for  one,  do  not  fear  the  dangers  that  many  claim  will 
fall  if  the  discrimination  of  good  and  evil  be  left  to  the  indi1 
vidual.  But  these  conditions  contain  an  active,  quickly  mov- 
ing, truthful,  progressive  ethics.  The  man  or  woman  sunk  in 
lowest  degradation,  sin,  or  crime  is  the  laggard,  and  when 
pathological  conditions  do  not  explain  the  status,  then  poverty, 
a  deplorable  social  state,  love  of  luxury,  the  delights  from 
money  possession  do.  Seekers  of  vice  for  its  own  sake  and 
for  its  supposed  gains  are  not  those  seeking  Truth  for  Truth's 
sake  and  God's. 

The  greatest  necessity  of  life,  far  beyond  any  other  sort 
of  prosperity,  a  necessity  of  our  soul  and  body,  is  the  struggle 
for  the  Good,  and  by  research  it  is  our  duty  to  find  out  what 
is  evil.  With  the  diversity  of  men's  and  women's  minds, 
there  will  be  a  corresponding  diversity  of  what  is  good  and 
what  is  evil.  Never  mind,  let  us  have  all  diversities;  out  of 
the  confusion  of  many  tongues  we  shall  find  the  middle  way 
paved  with  blocks  of  truth  leading  towards  the  ultimate  good. 
Every  working  hour  of  our  lives  should  be  devoted  to  the 
pursuit  of  the  Good.  When  the  relative  good  found  has 
passed  over  into  evil,  because  we  have  gained  in  knowledge 
and  know  that  what  seemed  good  in  ignorance  is  so  no  more, 
then  must  this  former  good  be  spurned  as  lesser  good  and 
the  soul  must  aspire  again  to  dig  through  error's  crust.  At 
last  the  sparkling  transparent  stream  is  found,  the  soul  drinks 
of  the  inspiring  waters,  and  pauses  never  again  to  define  and 
distinguish  the  good  from  the  evil. 

It  has  occurred  to  some  that  there  is  no  purer  motive  than 
the  pursuit  of  the  higher  Truth,  the  ideal  Truth;  and  to  ex- 
press these  quests  in  the  thoughts  and  deeds  of  every-day  life 
is  not  only  a  duty,  but  an  inspiration.  Call  such  motives  a 


416  LITERARY   PAPERS 

religion  if  you  will,  but  it  is  a  religion  so  broad  and  untram- 
meled  as  to  include  all  points  of  view. 

If  the  composite  impression  from  Browning's  poems  has 
led  me  to  gather  support  from  them  for  these  views,  be  it  un- 
derstood that  they  are  not  uttered  except  as  an  individual 
expression,  not  as  criticism  other  than  Browning's  own,  and 
these  suggestions  alone  are  of  interest  as  the  outcome  of  a 
soul's  experience.  I  do  not  deny  the  need  of  assistance  to 
the  weaker  from  the  stronger,  and  the  weight  of  greater  learn- 
ing, greater  knowledge,  should  not  be  lightly  thrust  aside. 

Browning  says  all  this.  But  the  day  comes  when  the  spirit, 
like  the  little  child  who  learns  to  stand  and  walk  alone,  rises 
up  and  says,  "I  go  to  prove  my  soul;  I  see  my  way  as  birds 
their  trackless  way.  I  shall  arrive  in  God's  good  time." 
Who  will  presume  to  deny  to  this  soul  its  power  ? 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abbott,  Helen  C.  De  S.,  autobiographical 
fragment,  8-18;  lectures,  23;  scientific 
pilgrimage,  26. 

Abbott,  James,  5,  8,  12. 

Abbott,  Dr.  William  Louis,  8. 

Absorption,  method  of,  in  plants,  235. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  (Phila- 
delphia), 15. 

Acetic  ether,  action  of,  137. 

Acids,  table  of,  332. 

Acrose  formed  by  Emil  Fischer,  321. 

Aldol  condensation,  339. 

Aldose,  name  for  aldehyde  sugars,  321. 

Algae,  relative  position  of,  245. 

Alizarin,  coloring-matter  of  madder,  202. 

Alkaloids,  appearance  of,  273  ;  distribu- 
tion of,  112. 

Alps,  views  of,  74,  77;   Drude's,  58. 

American  Association  for  Advancement  of 
Science,  n,  14,  22,  101. 

Ames,  Joseph  S.,  criticism  of,  27. 

Amides,  265. 

Ammidown,  E.  H.,  on  tariff  revision, 
197. 

Amylomycin,  247. 

Analogies,  force  of,  258. 

Arabinose,  discovery  of,  337. 

Aristotle  and  Browning,  405. 

Armstrong,  Professor,  85,  86. 

Aromatic  nitrils,  new  syntheses  of,  286. 

Art,  Science  and  Philosophy  in  (paper), 

349- 
Ash-ingredients,  240,  243,  261.    ' 

Bacilli  in  chemical  change,  344. 

Baeyer,  A.  von,  observations  of,  286,  321. 

Bagasse,  disposition  of,  216. 

Bale,  visit  to,  78. 

Bartoletti,  discovers  milk  sugar,  341. 

Baumann,  Professor,  visit  to,  78;  investi- 
gations of,  241. 

Beet-sugar,  production  of,  212. 

Benzole  ring,  worship  of,  47. 

Berlin,  Agricultural  School,  52;  Botanical 
Garden,  54;  Chemical  Society,  47;  Eth- 
nological Museum,  49. 

Berne,  visit  to,  73. 

Berzelius,  Professor,  32. 


Beyer,  C.,  experiments  of,  297. 

Biedermann,  authority  of,  sustained,  298. 

Bing's  Japanese  curios,  82. 

Blaschka  glass-works,  55. 

Blockley  Hospital,  accident  at,  13. 

Bokorny,  observation  of,  321. 

Bonn,  visit  to,  81. 

Botany,  chemical  basis  of,  112. 

Bovallius,  Dr.,  as  cicerone,  32. 

Brendel's  botanical  models,  53. 

Brinton,  Dr.  Daniel  G.,  16,  79,  102. 

Brinckmann,  Dr.  J.,  40. 

Browning,  Robert,  17;  the  apostle  of  truth, 

366;  dramas  of,  367,  393. 
Brugsch  Bey,  87. 

Buckwheat,  nutritive  value  of,  195. 
Buddha,  quoted,  393. 
Bunsen,  Professor  R.  W.,  visit  to,  81. 

Calcium  in  green  leaves,  241. 

Candolle,  De,  cited,  169. 

Carbohydrates,  Synthetic  Work  in  (paper), 

318;    division  of,  322;    synthetic   work 

in,  88. 

Carlsberg  Laboratory,  37. 
Carmen  Silva,  70. 
Carnaiiba  wax,  description  of,  124. 
Cascara  amarga,  207;   solid  hydrocarbons 

in,  280. 

Catechin  in  Saraca,  173. 
Celin  Sabbrin  (pen  name),  17,  349. 
Cereal  products  of  U.  S.,  192. 
Chalmot,  De,  theory  of,  337. 
Chemistry,  importance  of,  in  botany,  175. 
Chichipate,  analysis  of,  21,  22,  281;  yellow 

dye  from,  206. 

China,  use  of  sorghum  in,  215. 
Chlorophyll,  52;   function  of,  244. 
Chocolate,  importance  of,  190. 
Cholesterin,  187. 

Ciamician  and  Silber,  experiments  of,  316. 
Clarke,  Professor  Hugh  A.,  7. 
Claus,  Professor,  visit  to,  78. 
Cleve,  Professor,  32. 
"Coefficient  of  purity,"  221. 
Coffee,  importations  of,  192. 
Cohn,  Professor,  on  production  of  starch, 

208. 


420 


INDEX 


College  of  Pharmacy  (Philadelphia),  14, 10, 
167. 

Collier,  Peter,  experiments  of,  218. 

Condiments,  nutritive  value  of,  114;  table 
of,  115. 

Coniin,  synthesis  of,  38. 

Cope,  Professor  Edward  D.,  10,  22,  118. 

Copenhagen,  Agricultural  School  of,  37. 

Cortena,  visit  to,  90. 

Cotton-seed  oil,  185. 

Coumarin,  occurrence  of,  273. 

Cremer  on  the  effect  of  phlorizin,  343. 

Crookes,  Sir  William,  27,  28;  visit  to,  83; 
on  chemical  evolution  of  plant  com- 
pounds, 279. 

Crotonic  acid,  experiments  with,  300;  paper 
on,  300;  tabulated  results  of  five  ex- 
periments, 306. 

Darwin,  cited,  23,  26,  251. 

Davidson,  Thomas,  97. 

Dentistry  in  Germany,  43. 

Diffusion,  methods  of,  226. 

Dole,  Nathan  Haskell,  study  with,  19. 

Dragendorff  method  praised,  14,  119,  122, 

126,  176,  184. 
Drama,  Greek,  398. 

Drama  in  Relation  to  Truth,  paper  on,  364. 
Dresden  gallery,  55;   Polytechnic,  56. 
Drude,  Professor,  57;  visit  to,  58. 
Drugs,  Huxley's  opinion  of,  82;  medicinal 

value  of,  189. 

Drug  trade,  table  of  prices  in,  188. 
Dubois,  Dr.  Emelie  B.,  9. 
Dubrunfaut  discovers  maltose,  341. 
Dulcite  group,  table,  328. 
Durer,  Albrecht,  house  of,  69. 
Duret,  Theodore,  pictures  of,  82. 
Duvernoy,  Alphonse,  cited,  6. 
Dye-wood  colors,  table  of,  172. 
Dye-woods,  importation  of,  201. 
Dissymmetry,  idea  of,  353. 

"  Ecstatic  Vision"  (prose  poem),  98. 

Ekman,  Professor  F.  L.,  31. 

Elements,  association  of,  259 ;  regarded  as 
compounds,  257. 

Endlich,  Dr.  F.  M.,  courtesy  of,  167. 

Enfleurage,  described,  187. 

Environment,  importance  of,  113. 

Errera,  Leo,  on  cells,  276;  on  plant  de- 
fenses, 278. 

Euripides,  "Alkestis,"  399,  411. 

Evolution  applied  to  chemistry,  318;  reach 
of,  259. 

Evolutionary  theory  at  Jena,  67. 

Ewald,  Professor,  49. 


Fannie,  the  colored  maid,  22,  39,  52,  64. 
Fischer,  Professor  Emil,  68  j    experiments 

of,  320>  324,  33  *>  337,  344  5  obtains  glu- 

cosides  synthetically,  342. 
Food,  definition  of,  114. 
Fort  Scott,  experiments  at,  198. 
Fouquieria  splendens,  14, 15, 18;  paper  on, 

117,  wax  from,  184. 
Friedlander,  experiments  of,  297. 
Fritzsche  Brothers,  quintessential  oils,  190. 
Fructose,  340. 
"Full  Moon  "  (poem),  106. 
Furfurol  reaction,  use  of,  338. 

Gas  analysis,  57. 

German  students,  manners  of,  66. 
Germany,  North  and  South  contrasted,  41, 
Geuther,  Professor,  visit  to,  65. 
Glass  flowers,  55. 
Glucose,  first  obtained,  331. 
Glucosides,  position  of,  112;  reserve  food 
material,  256,  272;   made  synthetically, 

342- 

Goddard,  Arabella,  6. 
Goessmann,  Dr.   C.   A.,  experiments    on 

bagasse,  217. 
Goethe,  study  of,  17;  home  of,  62;  "Iphi- 

genia,"  399. 
Goodale,  Professor,  56. 
Grasse,  oil  industry  in,  186. 
Green,  Edward  Lee,  quoted,  117. 
Grindelwald,  visit  to,  75. 

Haematoxylon,  24;   paper  on,  171, 

Hamburg,  Woman's  Art  Industrial  School 
of,  40. 

Hansen,  Professor,  37. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  importations  from,  197, 
213. 

Heckel,  M.  Edouard,  scheme  of  plant  clas- 
sification, 1 68,  248,  267;  botanical  table, 
268. 

Hedin,  Sven,  speech  of,  31. 

Hegel  quoted,  345. 

Heliastic  oath,  cited,  397. 

Helmholtz's  laboratory,  27. 

Hempel,  Professor  Walter,  57. 

Henry,  Dr.  F.  P.,  19. 

Herder,  house  of,  68. 

Hermann,  L.,  quoted,  1 14. 

Hexose,  explanation  of,  323;   table,  328. 

Hildebrandt,  Professor,  31,  34. 

Hofmann,  Professor,  visit  to,  46. 

Holmes,  Professor,  theory  of,  86. 

Homer,  truth  in,  396. 

Honorary  distinctions,  101. 

Hop  extract,  182. 


INDEX 


421 


Howell,  Mary  F.,  5. 

Humanity,  sympathy  with,  89. 

Hunt,  T.  Sterry,  cited,  258. 

Hyde,  James  F.  C.,  on  Chinese  sugar-cane, 

2I5- 
Hydrocarbons  in  plants  (paper),  280. 

Ibsen,  Henrik,  28;  reception  to,  29;  "Little 
Eyolf,"  374. 

Impressionist  pictures,  16,  82,  349  et  seq. 

Indigo,  203;  manufacture  of,  204;  importa- 
tion of,  205. 

Ingraham,  Dr.  Lena,  101. 

Interlaken,  visit  to,  74. 

Inulin,  use  of,  342. 

Iron  in  green  plants,  242. 

Japan,  drama  in,  365. 

Jeanpretre,    John,    associated    with   Mrs. 

Michael,  286,  292. 

Jena,  visit  to,  64;  botanical  garden  of,  66. 
Jorgenson,  Dr.  S.  M.,  37. 
Jungfrau,  accidents  on,  76. 

Karson,  Alfred  (pen-name),  90. 
Kekule,  Professor  F.  A.,  81. 
Kellner,  investigations  of,  266. 
Kiel,  University  of,  38. 
Kiliani's  method,  value  of,  340. 
Kirschhoff,    converts    starch    into    grape 

sugar,  331. 

Kny,  Professor,  52,  66. 
Kovalevskaya,  Sophia,  30. 

Laboratorrein  of  Upsala,  33. 

Lactic  acid  depicted,  325. 

Ladenburg,  Professor,  28;  visit  to,  38. 

Landolt's  laboratory,  52. 

Langley,  Professor  S.  P.,  23,  25. 

Lanolin,  uses  of,  188. 

Lathrop,  George  Parsons,  7. 

"Ledger,"  Philadelphia,  cited,  23. 

Leffman,  Henry,  laboratory  of,  14,  15. 

Leipsic  Botanical  Garden,  60. 

Lette-Verein,  Berlin,  49. 

Lichenin,  office  of,  341. 

Liebermann,  Professor,  46,  48;  visit  to,  51. 

Liebig,   plan  for   artificial   production   of 

sugar,  319. 
Linthal,  visit  to,  88. 
Lisbon  earthquake,  63. 
Liszt,  house  of,  62. 
London,  second  visit  to,  82. 
Lotze  (Hermann),  cited,  364. 
Lbven,  Sven,  31,  36. 
Lukens,  Howard,  study  with,  19. 
Lunge,  Professor,  visit  to,  72. 


Madder,  importance  of,  202. 

Maltose,  341. 

Mandelic  Acid  and  its  Nitril,  paper  on,  229. 

Mannite,  use  of,  340, 

Maple  sugar,  production  of,  212. 

Margraff,  Professor,  46;  first  obtains 
glucose,  331. 

Matter,  living,  260. 

Maumene,  E.  J.,  on  Yucca,  126. 

Medical  College,  Woman's,  Philadelphia, 
9,  10,  12. 

Meehan,  Thomas  A.,  advice  of,  15. 

Mercaptals,  sugar  compounds,  337. 

Metabolism,  explained,  234. 

Methane,  how  conceived,  325. 

Meyer,  Professor  E.  von,  visit  to,  60 ;  ob- 
servations of,  286,  292. 

Michael,  Professor  Arthur,  87,88;  criticism 
by,  300. 

Microchemistry,  170. 

Mill  (John  Stuart)  cited,  381. 

Mirror  image,  345. 

Mitchell,  Dr.  S.  Weir,  19. 

Monet,  pictures  of,  349  et  seq. 

Montelius,  name  of,  5,  34. 

Morse,  Professor  Edward  S.,  23,  35. 

Mosses,  constituents  of,  248. 

Munich,  visit  to,  71. 

Murie,  Dr.,  87. 

"My  Star"  (poem),  99. 

Na'geli,  researches  of,  320. 

Napthylphenylacetonitril,  290. 

Naquet  and  Louguinine,     experiment     of, 

299. 

Nitric  acid,  action  of,  137. 
Nitril,  experiments  with,  286  et  seq. 
Nitrogen  supply,  source  of,  237. 
N6-plays,  Japanese,  365. 
Nordenskiold,  Baron,  30. 
Nuremburg,  visit  to,  69. 
Nuremburg  Industrial  School,  70. 

Ocotilla  (see  also  Fouquieria),  analysis  of, 
178;  description  of,  118;  sap-currents  in, 
238. 

Osazones,  340. 

Paper  from  bagasse,  217. 

Paris,  visit  to,  82. 

Parrish,  Dr.  William  H.,  13. 

Pasteur,  L.,  suggests  grouping  of    atoms, 

324;  on  molecular  dissymmetry,  353. 
Pentose,  table,  328. 
Petroleum  spirits     extracts,    Summary    I, 

132. 
Pfeffer,  Professor,  60. 


422 


INDEX 


Phenylanilidoessigsaurenitril,  295. 
Phenylchloracetonitril,  description  of,  293. 
Phenyltrimethylphenylacetonitril,  289. 
Philosophy  of  life,  103. 
Phloretin,  Constitution  of  (paper),  313. 

Phlorizin,  description  of,  343. 

Phlox  Carolina,  compounds  in,  282. 

Phloxol,  a  crystalline  camphor,  207. 

Picramnine,  a  new  alkaloid,  207. 

Pinner,  Professor,  48. 

Plant  Analysis  as  an  Applied  Science  (pa- 
per), 175. 

Plant  cells,  260. 

Plant  chemistry,  lecture  on,  25;  in  relation 
to  sorghum  sugar,  210. 

Plant  forms,  chemical  basis  of,  112,  232. 

Plants,  chemical  classification  of,  23,  169; 
growth  of,  59;  Miss  Abbott's  arrange- 
ment of,  113;  chemical  constituents  of, 
1 68,  233,  264;  Comparative  Chemistry 
of  (paper),  257. 

Plasmodia,  explained,  245. 

Plato,  influence  of,  409. 

Polyclinic,  Philadelphia,  115. 

Polyporus,  acid  of,  247. 

Polysaccharides,  explanation  of,  323. 

Polytechnicum  of  Zurich,  72. 

Porro-Mxiller  operation,  13. 

Pringsheim,  Professor,  visit  to,  51. 

Progression,  law  of,  276. 

Protoplasm,  living  and  dead,  232. 

Pyrophaeal,  252. 

Quinine,  manufacture  of,  190. 

Radiometer,  discovery  of,  85. 

Rattlesnakes,  22. 

Ree,  Frau,  40  et  seq. 

Rein,  Professor,  visit  to,  82. 

Religious  trend  of  thought,  93. 

Renoir,  pictures  of,  356,  362. 

Resins  named  in  al,  137,  note. 

Retzius,  Professor,  32. 

Rochegrosse,  picture  by,  391. 

Rohmann,  shows    use    of    blood     serum 

331- 

Roscoe,  Sir  Henry,  26. 
Rotation  of  crops,  explained,  239. 
Royal  Society,  meeting  of,  85. 
Rundstrom,  Inez  C.,  30. 
Rye,  nutritive  value  of,  195. 

Salm-Horstmar,  experiments  of,  240. 

Salt  Lake  City,  visit  to,  12. 

Sand,  George,  18. 

Sap,  flow  of,  238. 

Saponin,  study  of,  61;    discoveries  in,  112 


a  constructive  element,  168;  in  Saraca, 
173;  distribution  of,  174;  complexity  of , 
253;  presence  of,  252,  253. 

Saraca  Indica,  coloring  principle  for,  171, 
205,  255. 

Scheibler,  discovery  of  arabinose,  337. 
chiff,  Hugo,  investigations  of,  313. 

Schleiden,  Dr.  J.  M.,  cited,  175. 

Schunck,  Dr.  Edward,  27. 

Schwendener,  Professor,  52;  visit  to,  54. 

Scientific  Notes,  19. 
Separation"  (poem),  100. 

September  Day  (poem),  94. 

Sewing-machines,  43. 

Shelley,  Browning's  admiration  of,  395. 

Silica  as  possible  living  matter,  278. 

Silicic  acid,  importance  of,  242. 

Smith,  Dr.  W.  J.,  79;  Mrs.  Smith,  71,  80. 

Smitt,  Professor,  33. 

Snakes,  feeding  of,  19. 

Sorghum,  sugar  from,  198;  changeable  dis- 
position of,  222. 

Spectroscope,  n,  21. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  10. 

Starch  in  plants,  274. 

Stearns,  Frederick,  &  Co.,  manufactures  of, 
189. 

Steenstrup,  Professor  J.,  37. 

Stereo-chemistry,  324. 

Stockholm,  impressions  of,  35. 

Strohmann,  Professor,  66;  visit  to,  61. 

Sugar-canes,  wax  in,  24. 

Sugars,  manufacture  of,  196;  artificial 
production  of,  320;  table  of,  334;  value 
of  the  higher,  337. 

"Sunshine  on  the  Delaware"  (poem),  96. 

Sweden,  manners  in,  29,  schools  of,  31; 
Royal  Academy  of,  33;  titles  in,  34. 

Swedenborg,  E.,  suggests  geometrical  form 
of  matter,  324. 

Switzerland,  parties  in,  76. 

Tannin,  appearance  of,  270. 

Tartaric  acid,  depicted,  326. 

Tea,  distribution  of,  191;  importation  of, 
191. 

Thomson,  Dr.  William,  9,  18. 

Thun,  visit  to,  74. 

Tolylphenylacetonitril,  synthesis  of,  287. 

Topelius,  Miss,  30. 

Trimble,  Professor  Henry,  14;  discovery 
by,  280. 

Triangulation,  idea  of,  350,  352. 

Truth,  conception  of,  88;  among  the  Greeks 
and  in  Browning  (paper),  393;  as  re- 
lated to  the  drama  (paper),  364. 

Tufts  College  Medical  School,  101. 


INDEX 


423 


Upsala,  University  of,  32,  33. 

Ventnor,  concert  at,  6. 

Vines's  classification  criticised,  243. 

Wagner's  tone-motifs,  359. 

Waxes,  vegetable,  120,  124,  183. 

Weimar,  visit  to,  62. 

White,  Dr.  Frances  Emily,  10. 

Whitman,  Walt,  98,  105;      Woman     and 

Freedom  in  (paper),  370. 
Wiebel,  Professor,  laboratory  of,  39,  49. 
Wiley,  Dr.  H.  W.,  4,  23,  in,  214,  221, 

229;  on  sorghum,  200. 
Wilhelmi,  Eda,  10. 
Willrock,  Professor,  33,  67. 
Wislicenus,  Professor  J.,    59;    hypothesis 

of,  300,  304;  mistake  of,  308. 
Witt,  Professor,  48. 
Wohl,  discovery  of,  338. 
Wolcott,  Dr.  Grace,  10. 
Woman,  position  of  in  Germany,  50. 


Woman  and  Freedom  in  Whitman  (paper), 

37°- 
Wurzburg,  visit  to,  68. 

Xanthophyll,  cause  of  autumnal  coloring, 
244,  267. 

Yellowstone  National  Park,  visit  to,  n,  12. 

Yucca  angustifolia,  15,  28,  87;  (paper), 
126;  studies  in,  244,  252,  264;  petroleum 
extracts,  127,  132;  ether  extracts,  134; 
ethereal  extracts,  142;  alcoholic  extracts, 
145,  152;  aqueous  extracts,  155,  163; 
carb  hydrates,  156,  158,  161;  dilute  hy- 
drochloric acid  extracts,  165;  total  quan- 
titative results,  1 66. 

Yuccal,  named,  37, 252;  solidified,  138. 

Zinc,  constituent  of  plants,  241. 
Zinin/discovers  the  amide  of  mandelic  acid, 

297. 

Zoology,  interest  in,  9. 
Zurich,  women  at,  59;  visit  to,  72. 


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